WATER  RESOURCES 
PRESENT  and  FUTURE  USES 

BY 

FREDERICK  HAYNES  NEWELL 


YALE     UNIVERSITY     PRESS 


CHESTER  S.  LYMAN  LECTURES 


WATER  RESOURCES:  PRESENT  AND   FUTURE  USES 


mmm 


Nature's  method  of  conservation  of  water  by  storage.  Lake  Tahoe,  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada  on  the  boundary  between  California  and  Nevada,  typical 
of  the  mountain  lakes  whose  storage  capacity  can  be  increased  at  relatively 
small  cost. 


WATER  RESOURCES 

PRESENT  AND  FUTURE  USES 


BY 

FREDERICK  HAYNES  NEWELL 

ii 

PROFESSOR  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERING 
UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


A    REVISION    OF    THE 

ADDRESSES  DELIVERED   IN  THE  CHESTER  S.    LYMAN 

LECTURE      SERIES,       1913,      BEFORE     THE     SENIOR 

CLASS      OF      THE      SHEFFIELD      SCIENTIFIC       SCHOOL 

YALE     UNIVERSITY 


NEW  HAVEN 
YALE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

LONDON  •  HUMPHREY  MILFORD  •  OXFORD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

MDCCCCXX 


COPYRIGHT,  1920, 
YALE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 


THE  CHESTER  S.  LYMAN  LECTURESHIP 

FUND 

The  Chester  S.  Lyman  Lectureship  Fund  was  established  in  1910 
through  a  gift  to  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific 
School  by  Chester  W.  Lyman,  Yale  College,  1882,  in  memory  of 
his  father,  the  late  Professor  Chester  S.  Lyman,  for  many  years 
Professor  of  Physics  and  Astronomy  in  the  Sheffield  Scientific 
School.  The  income  of  this  fund,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  gift, 
is  used  for  maintaining  a  course  of  lectures  in  the  Sheffield  Scientific 
School  on  the  subject  of  Water  Storage  Conservation.  The  present 
volume  constitutes  the  second  of  the  series  of  memorial  lectures. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  lectures  upon  which  this  volume  is 
founded  were  delivered  in  1913,  at  a  time  when  the  lecturer  was 
director  of  the  Reclamation  Service.  Before  the  material  could  be 
completed  for  publication  many  changes  took  place,  the  world  war 
began  and  the  manuscript  was  necessarily  laid  aside  in  order  to 
concentrate  on  work  more  or  less  directly  connected  with  the  war, 
and  on  the  preparation  of  data  for  reconstruction  studies  made 
under  the  auspices  of  the  National  Research  Council.  On  the  sign- 
ing of  the  armistice,  the  material  was  again  taken  up  and  pushed  to 
completion,  a  new  setting  being  given  to  it  by  the  conditions  which 
had  developed. 


415497 


PREFACE 

In  this  Day  of  Opportunity  following  the  great  world  war, 
our  people  are  calling  for  wise  planning,  for  creative  effort, 
for  nation-wide  cooperation,  for  economic  administration, — all 
based  on  wider  knowledge  dependent  upon  increased  study  and 
research  to  furnish  additional  needed  facts.  The  national 
wealth,  present  and  prospective,  has  been  mortgaged  to  pay  the 
vast  debts  resulting  from  the  war.  We  know  that  the  burden 
can  be  lifted  if  we  wisely  employ  the  resources  which  nature  has 
lavished  but  which  we  are  so  wastefully  using.  We  must  call 
to  our  aid  science  and  scientific  management, — in  its  true 
sense, — to  save  some  of  the  enormous  losses  in  fertility  of  the 
soil,  in  timber,  in  fuel,  and  in  other  natural  resources,  and  to 
add  to  our  income.  The  load  of  debt  may  ultimately  prove  a 
benefit  to  future  generations,  if  in  discharging  it  we  learn  the 
lessons  of  greater  thrift  and  effectiveness  in  employing  rather 
than  in  wasting  our  children's  birthright. 

Each  citizen,  taxpayer,  and  voter  is  concerned;  upon  him 
rest  the  obligations  of  providing  the  ways  of  discharging  the 
war  debts  and  at  the  same  time  of  increasing  the  prospects  of 
the  present  and  future  prosperity.  It  is  to  these  people,  to  the 
home  builders,  to  the  plain  citizens,  that  this  message  is  ad- 
dressed: it  is  hoped  to  interest  them  in  the  things  which  not 
only  affect  them  immediately  as  breadwinners,  but  which  give 
them  a  larger  view  of  their  opportunities.  Especially  is  this 
desirable  at  the  present,  when  the  period  of  reconstruction  has 
set  in  and  when  every  thinking  person  is  aroused  to  the  need  of 
his  taking  part  in  the  changes  going  on  about  him.  As  stated 
by  Lloyd  George  there  is  now  an  "opportunity  for  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  industrial  and  economic  conditions  of  the  country 
such  as  has  never  been  presented  in  the  life  of  the  world.  The 
whole  state  of  society  is  more  or  less  molten."  "There  is  no 
time  to  lose." 


WATER  RESOURCES 

Why  emphasize  this  particular  subject  of  water  resources 
or  of  hydro-economics?  Why  this  rather  than  some  other 
branch  of  science  and  its  application?  While  all  fields  should 
be  explored,  yet  if  only  one  may  be  selected,  there  is  probably 
no  one  in  which  larger  immediate  results  may  be  obtained  than 
in  that  which  relates  to  the  one  mineral  or  substance,  vital  to 
all  life  and  industry,  and  yet  which  because  of  its  very  common 
occurrence  has  perhaps  been  relatively  less  subject  to  careful 
study  than  others.  While  much  is  known,  yet  there  is  more  to  be 
discovered ;  while  much  has  been  done,  there  is  probably  no  one 
substance  upon  whose  conservation  and  use  depends  a  larger 
share  of  life,  health,  and  prosperity. 

But  why  a  general  book  on  the  subject?  There  are  already 
scores  of  textbooks,  scientific  publications,  reference  works, 
and  encyclopedias.  There  is,  however,  apparently  no  one  dis- 
cussion of  the  subject  designed  to  present  the  field  of  conserva- 
tion and  use  of  water  in  connection  with  a  consideration  of  the 
all-important  question,  will  it  pay?  Will  the  results  be  worth 
wrhile,  not  merely  in  money  but  in  other  substantial  gains  to 
humanity,  such  as  better  surroundings,  better  sanitation,  or 
higher  aesthetic  values? 

Do  we  not  already  have  fairly  complete  knowledge  of  the 
facts?  In  some  fields,  yes — in  others  we  find  that  in  attempting 
the  larger  projects  we  run  into  the  twilight  zone  or  fog  of 
doubts  which  must  be  cleared  by  the  light  afforded  by  careful, 
thorough  research  by  investigation  into  fundamentals.  It  is 
vital  under  our  democratic  government  that  the  ordinary  citizen 
fully  appreciate  this  fact  and  that  he  do  his  part  toward  stimu- 
lating research  or  providing  means  for  continued  extension  of 
the  bounds  of  human  knowledge. 

The  apology  for  adding  another  book  to  the  load  of  a  weary 
world  is  to  be  found  in  the  hope  that  in  some  way  the  plain 
citizen  above  described  may  be  induced  to  look  in  a  broad  way 
upon  these  important  matters  and  to  add  his  favorable  indorse- 
ment to  the  efforts  of  scientific  men  and  investigators  in  ascer- 
taining more  definitely  the  facts  which  may  be  utilized  by 
engineers  and  promoters  in  developing  and  utilizing  the  natural 
resources  of  the  country  for  the  common  welfare. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

In  preparing  this  material,  free  use  has  been  made  of  the 
assistance  generously  extended  by  many  colleagues  in  the  United 
States  Reclamation  Service,  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey and  others  in  various  departments  of  the  government  and 
in  the  University  of  Illinois.  The  primary  inspiration  for  the 
effort  is  that  arising  from  the  conservation  policies  of  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt  and  his  associates  in  this  work,  notably,  W  J 
McGee,  the  student  of  soils  and  waters,  and  from  Gifford  Pin- 
chot,  the  founder  of  the  Yale  Forest  School,  and  for  many  years 
forester  of  the  United  States ;  also  from  the  activities  of  Sena- 
tor Francis  G.  Newlands  and  especially  from  the  effective  work 
of  Geo.  H.  Maxwell,  the  executive  committeeman  of  the  National 
Irrigation  Association.  Data  and  description  have  been  freely 
furnished  by  Charles  E.  Brooks,  editor  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau ;  by  N.  H.  Darton  of  the  United  States  Geolog- 
ical Survey;  and  by  Victor  E.  Shelford  of  the  University  of 
Illinois.  Kindly  assistance  and  advice  have  been  had  from 
many  other  conservationists  and  friends,  notably  from  Arthur 
P.  Davis,  chief  engineer  and  director,  United  States  Reclama- 
tion Service,  John  C.  Hoyt,  hydraulic  engineer,  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  and  John  C.  Merriam  of  the  National 
Research  Council. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface        .          .          .   -                 .  .  .  .  7 

Acknowledgment            .          .        •  .  .  .  9 

Chapter  I.     Introduction     .          -.  .  .  .  ..  .  25 

Research          .           ..'•'...          .  .  .  .  .  26 

What  is  Reconstruction?  .           .  ...  .  27 

Conservation              .                      .  .  .  .  28 

Hydro-Economics     .           .           .'  .  .  .  .  30 

Economics       .           .           .          \  .  .  .  .  31 

Engineering  Relations       .           .  .  .  .  .  34 

Broader  Relation     .           .           .  .  .  .  34 

Chapter  II.     Water  in  General    .  .  .  ..  , .  36 

What  is  Water?        .           .           .  .  '       .  .  36 

Uses  of  Water           .           .           .  .  .  .  .  37 

Where  Water  is  Found     .  .  .  .  39 

Science  Involved      .           .           .  .  .  .  .  40 

Meteorology   .                      ;  .  .  .  42 

Hydrography  and  Hydrology     .  .    '  .  .  43 

Geography,  Geology,  and  Physiography  ...  45 

Biological  Sciences            .           .  ,  .  .  .  45 

Application  to  Human  Needs     .  .  .  .  .45 

Chapter  III.     Precipitation          .  .  .  .  .  47 

Rainfall            .           .           ;           .  .  .  ,"'  .  47 

Causes  of  Rainfall  .           .           .  .  .  .  49 

Rainfall  Measurements      .  .  .  .  52 

Irregularities  in  Measurement  .  .  .  .53 

Periodic  Fluctuation          .           .  .  .  .  .  56 

Dew  and  Frost         .                      .  .  .  .  .  59 

Sky  Signs       .           .           .           ..  .  ...  59 

Forests  and  Mountains     ....  .  .  60 


12  WATER  RESOURCES 

PAGE 

Chapter  IV.     Evaporation            .          .          .          .  . .         65 

Evaporation  Measurements     -    .           .           .           .  .           69 

Standard  Gage          .......          70 

Results             .           .           .           .           .  !         .           .  .          71 

Drying  or  Dehydration     .           .           .           .           .  .          72 

Chapter  V.     Run-in .          76 

Quantity  Absorbed             .           .           .                      .  .76 

Underflow       .           .           .           .           .           *    .       .  .78 

Passage  of  Water  Underground            .           .  .          80 

Typical  Underground  Water  Conditions       .           .  ;.          81 

Quantity  of  Water  .           .           .           .           .           .  rV      83 

Quality  of  Water     .           .           .           .                      .  .  "       83 

Search  for  Underground  Water            .           .           .  84 

Conservation  of  Underground  Waters            .           .  .          88 

Chapter  VI.     Run-Off          .          ,r;        .        -.        ,.  .         91 

Floods  and  Drought  .  .  .  .  .   '       .          95 

Erosion  .  .  .  .  .  ...          97 

Sedimentation           .           .           .           .           .           .  .          99 

Debris  Problems      .           .           .           .           .           .  .\      100 

Varying  Quantities            .           .           .           .           .  .        101 

Data  Available          .           .           .           .                      .  ,        102 

Units  of  Water  Measurement     .           .           .           .  .104 

Station  Equipment  .           .           .           .           .           .  .106 

Discharge  Measurements             .           .           .           .  .107 

Fluctuating  Flow     .  .  .  .  ...        110 

Range  of  Fluctuation        .  .  .  .  ..        110 

Depth  of  Run-Off  .           .          .                     .          .  .112 

Ordinary  and  Average  Flow       .           .           .           .  .        112 

Chapter  VII.     Storage  of  Water          .          .          .  .117 

Necessity        .           .           .           .           .           .           .  .'117 

Modern  Methods .        119 

Topography    .           .           .           .          v         .           .  .120 

Mountain  Storage    .           .           .           .           .           ,  .        121 

Plains  Storage          .           '.           .           .           .           .  .        122 

Surveys            .           .           .           .           .           .           .  .122 

Alternative  Sites      .           .           .           .           '.           .  .        124 

Materials ".        x.  .        125 

Foundations    .           .           .           .           ...  .127 

Borings V  ."^    127 


CONTENTS  13 

PAGE 

Chapter  VIII.     Dams  .          .          .  .    '       .          .        130 

Earth  Dams   ....           .  .  ...        130 

Core  Walls     .           .  ...  /  .           .        133 

Paving             .           .  ,           .   .        .  ,           .134 

Hydraulic  Dams      ....  .  .           .        134 

Timber  Dams            .  .           .  .  .           .        136 

Loose  Rock  Dams   .  .           .           .  .  .           .136 

Masonry  Dams          .'  .           .           .  .  .           .138 

Concrete  Dams         .  .           .           .  .  .           .138 

Gates     ... 141 

Spillways         *           .  .           .           .  .  .           .142 

Retarding  Dams       .  .           .           .  .           .         143 

Failures                    ••  »  .           .           .  .  ..144 

Chapter  IX.      Notable  Works       .          .          .         ...        148 

Reclamation  Service          .  .  -   .  .  >         .        148 

Storage  Works .150 

Cost  and  Value         .  .  .  .  .  .  .151 

Roosevelt  Reservoir  .  .  ...  .        153 

Pathfinder .         156 

Shoshone         ,  .  .  .  .  .  .,         ,158 

Arrowrock       .  .  .  ....        .  .    •    159 

Elephant  Butte        . 160 

Lake  Tahoe    .  .  .  .    '       .  .  .  .        161 

Lahonton         .  .  .  .  I  .  .  .163 

Strawberry  Valley  .  .  .  .  .  .  .165 

Yakima  Lakes          .  :  .  .  .  .  .        166 

Deer  Flat  Reservoir  .  .  .  .  «        166 

Belle  Fourche  .          .   I  ' \.  .  .  .  .167 

Umatilla 168 

Minidoka         .  .  .  .  .,  .  .  .169 

Bear  Lake       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .171 

St.  Mary-Milk  River  Systems 171 

Deliveries  to  Reservoir     .  .  .  .  .  .        174 

Underground  Storage        .  .  .  .  .  .        175 

Chapter  X.     Uses  of  Water         •          •  •  .  -  179 

Costs  and  Benefits  .           .           .           .  .  .  .  179 

Support  of  Life  the  First  Use  of  Water  .  .  .  180 

Quantity  Needed     .           .           *          .  .  .  .  182 

Value  of  Pure  Water  183 


14.  WATER  RESOURCES 

PAGE 

Chapter  XI.     Food    Production    the    Second  Use    of 

Water                   .          .           .           .  ."  .        186 

Irrigation  and  Drainage   .           .           .           .  .           .187 

Internal  Expansion         .  .           .    ]       .           .  .                   1 90 

Diversion  of  Water            .           .           .           .  .           .        1 92 

Quantity  Used          .                      .           .           .  .           .194. 

Cost  of  Water           .           .           .           .           .' •  .           .        196 

Economic  Consideration    .           .           .           .  ...         197 

Chapter  XII.     Reclamation  Investigations  .  199 

Financing        .           .           .           .           .           .  .           .        200 

Surveys            .           .           .           .           .           *'  .        201 

Detailed  Plans      .    .           .           .           .           .  .    •       .        205 

Standard  Forms       .  *         .           .           .           .  »           .        205 

Construction  Methods        .           ...           .  .           .        206 

Chapter  XIII.      Irrigation  Structure  and  Methods         .        210 

Divisions  of  an  Irrigation  Project        .           .  .           .        210 

Collecting  Unit        .           ...           .  .210 

Diversion  Unit          ...  .211 

Carrying  Unit 212 

Distributing  Unit    .           .           .           .           .  .^       .        214 

Structures        .          -.           .           .           .           .  .           .        215 

Flumes    ...           .    /   .  .215 

Tunnels              .        .  ,           .           .           .  .        216 

Siphons   .           .           .           .   '        .           .  •           ,        216 

Canal  Lining    .                       .           ,           .  .*         .        217 

Gates       ...  .219 

Automatic  Spillway  .           .  .219 

Drops      .           .           .           .           .  .  '     220 

Pumping          ......  .220 

Chapter  XIV.      Operation  and  Maintenance  .          .       225 

Measurement  of  Irrigation  Water         .  .        226 

Heads  of  Water       .           .  .        227 

Application  of  Water        .           .           .  -.        228 

Flooding             .           .           .  228 

Furrows              .           .  •        229 

Subirrigation    .           .'          .  '  "•        230 

Rotation  of  Flow     .           .           .           .  .231 

Duty  of  Water          .  .232 

Products  '    -        233 

Alkali  and  Drainage          .           .           .           *  fP     •'•        237 


CONTENTS  15 

PAGE 

Chapter  XV.      Transportation    of   Waste,    the    Third 

Use  of  Water                                                       *  .  241 

Relative  Values        .  .  .  .    .      ..  .  .245 

Fisheries          .           .           .           .           .           .           .           .  248 

Recreational   Values           .           .           .           .         "  .           .  248 

Chicago  Sewage       .......  249 

Does  It  Pay?  .  .  .  .  .  .  .252 

Water  Fertilization  and  Self-Purification     .           .  255 

Needed  Research     .           .           .           .           .  257 

Chapter  XVI.     Industry  and  Transportation,  Fourth 

and  Fifth  Uses  of  Water                               .  259 

Manufacturing          .           /•         .           .           .           .           .  259 

Water  Power 260 

Transportation  or  Fifth  Use  of  Water          ' .           .           .  263 

New  York  Canals    .           .           .           .           .  265 

Water  Storage  for  Canal  .           .           .           .           .           .  267 

Chapter  XVII.     River  Regulation         .          .          .          .269 

Comprehensive  Projects   ......  269 

Flood  Prevention  or  Protection            ....  272 

Misuse  of  Streams  .......  274 

Fishes  and  Their  Value       .           ,           .                       .  275 

Mussels              .           .  .         .           .           .           .           .  279 

Need  of  Fishways      .           .           .                      .           .  279 

Frogs  and  Turtles      .  .  .  .  .  .  .     282 

Birds        .           .           .           .           .           .                      .  283 

Mammals           .'.          .           /          .           .           .           .  284 

Water  Margins            ."          .           .           .           .           .  284 

Swamps              .           .                       .           .                       .  285 

Aquatic  Plants            .           ;        .   .           .           .           .  287 

Brackish  Waters         .           .           .           .           ...  288 

Salt  Water  Problems  .  ...  .288 

Cooperative  Research        .           .           .           .           .           .  289 

Chapter  XVIII.     Legal  and  Legislative  Problems          .  292 

Vested  Rights            .           .           .           .           .           .           .  292 

Riparian  Rights       .           .           .           .           .           .           .  293 

Appropriation            .......  294 

Political  Relations   .  295 


16  WATER  RESOURCES 

PAGE 

Interstate  Activities  .  .  .  .  296 

Federal  Funds          .  .  .  .  .  297 

Waterways  Commission  .  .  .  ...  299 

Conclusions     .           .  .  .  .  .  301 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FOLLOWING  PAGE 

Frontispiece 

Lake  Tahoe,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  on  the  boundary  between  Cali- 
fornia and  Nevada,  typical  of  the  mountain  lakes  whose  storage 
capacity  can  be  increased  at  relatively  small  cost. 

Plate   I  .  .  .          ..  .'  .  .  .  22 

A.  Spillway  of  Roosevelt  Reservoir,  Arizona. 

B.  Products  resulting  from  irrigation  of  lands  formerly  useless. 

C.  Excavating  a  drainage  ditch  with  drag  line,  Shoshone  Project, 
Wyoming. 

Plate  II        ..  .  .          .          ..••*..  .          32 

A.  Sagebrush  covered  desert  lands,  typical  of  millions  of  acres 
of  good  soil  valueless  for  lack  of  water.     Irrigable  lands  before 
irrigation,  Yakima  Valley,  Washington. 

B.  Home  and  farm,  typical  of  thousands  made  possible  by  con- 
servation of  water  by  storage,  Minidoka  Project,  Idaho. 

C.  Floods  restrained  by  the  Roosevelt  Reservoir,  Arizona,  water 
otherwise  destructive  held  in  part  for  future  use  in  generation  of 
electric  power  and  for  irrigation  of  arid  lands,  illustrating  double 
or  triple  benefits  of  conservation. 

D.  Granite  Reef  diversion  dam  on  Salt  River,  Arizona. 

Plate   III      .  .  .  .  .    -       .  .  .  .  70 

A.  Tower  of  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  carrying  evapora- 
tion pans,  near  Salton  Sea,  California. 

B.  Towers    in    Salton    Sea,    California,    supporting    evaporation 
pans. 

C.  Standard     Evaporation     Station,     United     States     Weather 
Bureau. 

Plate  IV       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .          90 

A.  Small  earth  reservoirs  or  tanks  for  storage  of  water  pumped 
by  windmills  from  so-called  underflow,  Garden  City,  Kansas. 

B.  Storage  in  mountains.    Jackson  Lake  at  head  of  Snake  River, 
Idaho- Wyoming. 

C.  Brush  wing  dams  to  prevent  erosion  of  levees,  near  Yuma, 
Arizona. 

D.  Sedimentation,  adding  silt  to  clear  water  for  the  purpose  of 
reducing  seepage  from  a  canal,  Minidoka  Project,  Idaho. 


18  WATER  RESOURCES 

FOLLOWING  PAGE 

Plate  V .  .  .        106 

A.  Measuring  flow  of  water  in  Ironstone  Canal,  near  Montrose, 
Colorado. 

B.  Weir  for  measuring  water  in  one  of  the  canals  of  the  Williston 
Project,  North  Dakota. 

C.  A   plains   reservoir  site,   that   utilized   for  the   Cold   Springs 
Reservoir  of  the  Umatilla  Project,  Oregon. 

D.  A  reservoir  built  on  the  plains  or  open  valley  lands,  because 
of  lack  of  adequate  natural  storage  sites  in  the  mountains.    Deer 
Flat  Reservoir,  Boise  Project,  Idaho. 

Plate  VI ,126 

A.  An  unusually  good  dam  site  in  a  narrow  granite  gorge  with 
bedrock  a  few  feet  below  the  surface.     Site  of  the   Pathfinder 
Dam  on  North  Platte  River,  Wyoming. 

B.  Deceptive  appearance  of  foundations,  river  apparently  flow- 
ing upon  bedrock,  but  diamond  drill  shows  that  the  channel  is 
filled  with  bowlders  and  loose  rock  to  a  depth  of  sixty  feet  or 
more.     Site  of  Shoshone  Dam,  Wyoming. 

C.  Site   of   Roosevelt   Dam,   Arizona.     Showing  highly   inclined 
strata  of  side  walls  and  narrow  gorge. 

D.  Building  a  dam  of  earth,  showing  core  wall  in  center  with 
earth  banks  above  and  below,  to  be  widened  until  they  join,  cov- 
ering the  core  wall;   test  pits  on  hillside  in  line  of  core  wall; 
Strawberry  Valley  Dam,  Utah,  looking  upstream. 

Plate  VII     . .134 

A.  Earth  dam  built  by  hydraulic  process,  washing  the  earth  and 
loose  rock  from  the  hillside  and  sluicing  the  debris  out  to  the  site 
of  the  dam.     Conconully  Reservoir. 

B.  Earth  dam  built  by  hydraulic  process;   spillway  at  left  in 
recent    rock    excavation.      Conconully    Dam,    Okanogan    Project, 
Washington. 

C.  Paving  on  water  side  of  earth  dam,  Belle  Fourche  Project, 
South  Dakota. 

D.  Concrete  storage  dam,  at  East  Park,  Orland  Project,  Cali- 
fornia. 

Plate  VIII 142 

A.  One  of  several  rows  of  sluice  gates  to  control  water  flowing 
through  the  Arrowrock  Dam,  Boise  Project,  Idaho. 

B.  Operating  cylinders  for  sluice  gates,  also  portion  of  inspec- 
tion galley  in  Arrowrock  Dam,  Boise  Project,  Idaho. 

C.  A   series  of  curved  spillway  sections  near  East  Park  Dam, 
Orland  Project,  California. 

D.  Erosion    at    lower    toe    of    Mexican    diversion    dam    on    Rio 
Grande  above  El  Paso,  Texas. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  19 

FOLLOWING  PAGE 

Plate  IX      .  .  .  .  .  .  •       yv       150 

A.  Sheep  grazing  along  canal  in  vicinity  of  Huntley,  Montana, 
illustrating  how  they  may  be  used  to  keep  down  the  weeds  on 
canal  banks. 

B.  Tunnel  for  diversion  of   North   Platte   River   at   Pathfinder 
Dam,  Wyoming. 

C.  Shoshone   Dam,   Wyoming,  as   seen   from   water   side  before 
completion. 

D.  Part  of  reservoir  created  by  Shoshone  Dam,  Wyoming,  with 
wagon    road    around    side    of    reservoir    leading    to    Yellowstone 
National  Park. 

Plate  X         .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .        160 

A.  Arrowrock  Dam,  Boise  Project,   Idaho,  water  issuing  from 
five  openings  in  the  upper  row. 

B.  Elephant  Butte  Dam,  New  Mexico,  under  construction. 

C.  Earth  dam  on  Carson  River,  Nevada. 

D.  Lake  Keechelus,  Washington,  one  of  three  large  lakes  con- 
verted  into    reservoirs    at   head   of    Yakima    River.      Temporary 
wooded  crib  dam  above  site  of  permanent  earth  dam. 

Plate  XI       .  .  .  .  .  .  -.  .        178 

A.  Dam    at    head    of    Sunnyside    Canal,    Washington,    diverting 
water  which  comes  from  storage  at  the  head  of  Yakima  River. 

B.  Lower  embankment  of  Deer   Flat  Reservoir,  Boise  Project, 
Idaho. 

C.  Laying  concrete  blocks   on   upper  face  of  Owl  Creek  Dam, 
Belle  Fourche  Project,  South  Dakota. 

D.  Cold    Springs    Dam    and    outlet    tower,    Umatilla    Project, 
Oregon. 

Plate  XII     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .        186 

A.  Main   feed  canal,  concrete-lined   section,   for   carrying   flood 
water  to  Cold  Springs  Reservoir,  Umatilla  Project,  Oregon. 

B.  Spillway   of   the   Minidoka    Dam,    Idaho,    with   power   house 
in  distance. 

C.  Cement-lined  canal  carrying  the  water  of  Truckee  River  to 
Carson  Reservoir,  Nevada. 

D.  Flume    delivering    water    of    Truckee    River    into    Carson 
Reservoir,  Nevada. 

Plate  XIII  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .        198 

A.  LTnderground    storage   of    water    in   the   Great    Plains    area. 
Pumping  from  the  so-called  underflow  near  Garden  City,  Kansas. 

B.  Building  canal  by  wheeled  scraper,  Boise  Project,  Idaho. 

C.  Desert  land  before  irrigation,  Shoshone  Project,  Wyoming. 

D.  Alfalfa   and   hogs,   profitable    products    of   the   arid   region. 
Sun  River  Project,  Montana. 


20  WATER  RESOURCES 

FOLLOWING  PAGE 

Plate  XIV 214 

A.  Whalen  diversion  dam  of  North   Platte  Project,   Nebraska- 
Wyoming. 

B.  A  lined  tunnel  with  approach  to  canal.     Grand  Valley  Pro- 
ject, Colorado,  capacity  1,425  second-feet. 

C.  Farm  lateral  delivering  water  to  furrows,  using  canvas  dam, 
Shoshone  Project,  Wyoming. 

D.  Using  water,  stored  by   Roosevelt   Reservoir,  for   irrigation 
of  young  orange  grove,  applying  it  by  furrows.   Salt  River  Valley, 
Arizona. 

Plate  XV 232 

A.  Cement  flume,  Tieton  Canal,  Washington. 

B.  Casting  portions  of  reinforced  concrete  cement  flume,  Tieton 
Canal,  Washington. 

C.  Siphon   conveying   waters    of    Interstate    Canal   under    Raw- 
hide Creek,  North  Platte  Project,  Nebraska. 

D.  Cylindrical  gates  in  Franklin  Canal,  El  Paso,  Texas. 

Plate  XVI 240 

A.  Measuring   water   to   farm  laterals.      Uncompahgre   Project, 
Colorado. 

B.  Stacking  alfalfa  hay,  Garden  City  Project,  Kansas. 

C.  Alfalfa   field   injured   by   alkali   due   to   excessive   irrigation, 
Shoshone  Project,  Wyoming. 

D.  Apple  orchard,  North  Yakima,  Washington. 

Plate  XVII .258 

A.  Blackfeet  Indians  on  their  reservation  in  Montana  employed 
on  conservation  works. 

B.  Apache  Indian  laborers  at  Roosevelt  Reservoir  in  Arizona. 

C.  Mountain  forests  and  lake  made  possible  by  the  run-off  from 
the  forested  area. 

D.  Underground    storage   made    available   by   deep    boring;    an 
artesian  well,  New  Roswell,  New  Mexico. 

Plate  XVIII 268 

A.  Furrow  irrigation,  Yakima  Project,  Washington. 

B.  Farm  lands  destroyed  by  floods;  banks  of  New  River  near 
Imperial,  California. 

C.  Increased  length  of  spillway  produced  by  rectangular  bays, 
Klamath  Project,  Oregon. 

D.  River  gates  in  Minidoka  Dam,  Idaho. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  21 

FIGURES 

PAGE 
Fig.  1.     Sections  illustrating  conditions  which  control  formation  of 

flowing  wells  or  of  springs       ....          .          .  82 

Fig.  2.     Profile  showing  factors  indicating  depth  to  water-bearing 

stratum  at  a  given  locality       ......  86 

Fig.  3.     Apparatus  illustrating  loss  of  head  or  hydraulic  grade  due 

to  leakage         .......  87 

Fig.  4.     Profile  indicating  conditions  of  success  or  failure  of  arte- 
sian wells         .......  87 

Fig.  5.     Comparison  of  height  of  Roosevelt  Dam  with  Capitol  at 

Washington,  District  of  Columbia  .  147 


Plate  I.  A. 

Man's  method  of  conservation.     Portion  of  Roosevelt  Reservoir,  Arizona. 
A  dry  valley  made  into  a  lake. 


Plate  I.  B. 

Products  resulting  from  irrigation  of  lands  formerly  useless.  The  stack 
shown  above  contains  75  tons  of  alfalfa  hay  from  16  acres  on  Minidoka 
Project,  Idaho;  the  stack  is  50  feet  long,  38  feet  wide,  and  35  feet  high. 


Plate  I.  C. 
Excavating  a  drainage  ditch  with  drag-line,  Shoshone  Project,  Wyoming. 


WATER  RESOURCES:  PRESENT  AND  FUTURE   USES 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

Reconstruction  of  things,  of  men,  and  especially  of  ideals 
was  the  inevitable  demand  as  soon  as  the  world  awoke  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  destruction  being  wrought  by  the  great  war. 
As  hostilities  spread  and  more  and  more  peoples  were  drawn  in, 
with  ever  widening  ruin  to  property  and  institutions,  the  need 
for  devising  far-reaching  plans  for  rebuilding  became  more 
pressing.  While  every  possible  effort  was  being  made  to  quickly 
win  the  war,  yet,  at  the  same  time,  certain  far-seeing  men  recog- 
nized that  if  peace  came  without  having  adequate  plans  for 
reconstruction,  much  of  the  fruit  of  victory  would  be  lost. 
Thus  it  was  that  many  of  the  nations,  even  during  the  height  of 
the  war,  created  organizations  such  as  the  British  Ministry  of 
Reconstruction,  whose  duty  it  was  to  prepare  plans  and  espe- 
cially to  conduct  researches  into  those  matters  which  with  the 
reestablishment  of  peace  would  have  prime  importance. 

Many  a  statesman  of  Europe  and  each  propagandist  the 
world  over  has  seen  the  present  opportunity  and  need.  He  has 
had  his  vision  of  what  may  be  accomplished  at  the  moment  in 
the  world's  history  when  so  much  that  is  old  and-  bad  has  been 
weakened  and  so  much  that  is  idealistic  may  become  real  if  only 
this  golden  opportunity  is  grasped.  The  towns  of  the  war 
zone,  with  their  unsanitary  surroundings,  their  narrow,  crooked 
streets,  wrecked  by  war,  may  be  rebuilt  with  straight,  broad 
avenues  and  modern  improvements.  Likewise,  some  of  the 
ancient  institutions  with  cramping  influence  upon  industry,  edu- 
cation and  government  in  every  country,  now  that  their  founda- 
tions are  shaken,  must  be  rebuilt  from  the  ground  up  and  may 
be  planned  to  better  meet  the  needs  of  present  and  successive 
generations. 


26  WATER  RESOURCES 

An  incursion  into  the  fields  of  opportunity  and  need  shows 
that  there  is  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  tasks  which  should  be 
undertaken.  The  number  and  magnitude  of  these  are  appalling. 
Wonder  is  felt  that  with  the  achievement  of  our  present  civiliza- 
tion we  should  have  left  undone  so  many  of  these  tasks.  They 
pertain  to  every  department  of  human  life  and  involve  the 
health,  industry,  and  prosperity  of  nations  as  well  as  of  indi- 
viduals. One  great  group  of  problems  includes  labor ;  another, 
the  vital  questions  of  food  and  its  greater  production ;  another, 
the  transportation  methods  on  land  and  on  sea  and  so  on 
through  the  whole  range  of  human  interests. 

Among  all  these  groups  of  things  to  be  done  there  is  one 
which  has  a  peculiar  appeal  to  the  ordinary  citizen  because  so 
close  to  his  daily  life.  Yet  because  so  familiar  it  is  often  over- 
looked, while  attention  is  drawn  to  more  remote  happenings. 
This  is  the  group  of  questions  mainly  in  the  physical  and  biolog- 
ical sciences  which  in  the  decade  preceding  the  world  war  were 
discussed  under  the  then  popular  name  of  "conservation." 

Reconstruction,  as  the  word  is  now  generally  used,  covers 
much  the  same  group  of  questions,  together  with  newer  ideals 
and  aspirations,  and  implies  a  better  utilization  for  the  common 
welfare  of  the  natural  resources  and  the  more  effective  employ- 
ment of  physical  and  moral  forces.  It,  however,  in  popular  use, 
seems  to  involve  more  of  the  conception  of  utility,  of  practical 
and  immediate  application  to  the  problems  confronting  us. 

RESEARCH.  It  is  now  apparent — as  never  before — that 
research  must  precede  effective  work  in  reconstruction  or  in 
conservation.  This  fact,  while  generally  known  during  the  dis- 
cussion of  conservation  problems,  has  been  emphasized  by  the 
needs  created  by  the  great  war.  It  is  seen  more  widely  than  in 
the  previous  decade  that  to  clear  the  line  of  progress  there  must 
be  a  larger,  more  S3^stematic  and  more  vigorous  study  into 
things  as  they  are  in  order  to  eliminate  points  of  uncertainty. 

Many  things  whose  lasting  qualities  have  been  assumed  haA'e 
failed  in  part  under  the  shock  of  war.  Others  formerly  regarded 
as  dubious  have  made  good.  We  must  utilize  the  facts  now  at 
hand  and  while  we  cannot  wait  for  all  of  the  results  of  laborious 
and  time-consuming  research,  yet  we  are  not  justified  in  abating 


INTRODUCTION  27 

any  of  our  energies  in  initiating  and  bringing  to  useful  conclu- 
sions the  lines  of  investigation  where  further  facts  are  needed. 

America,  as  compared  with  her  resources  and  needs,  has  been 
remiss  in  research.  While  inventive  genius,  especially  in 
mechanical  lines,  has  been  encouraged,  research  as  such  has  been 
left  largely  to  other  nations.  Recognizing  this  condition,  our 
reconstruction  ideals  should  involve  larger  and  better  planned 
instrumentalities  for  research.  We  should  quickly  test  what  is 
known  and  explore  in  directions  where  additional  knowledge  is 
needed.  But  before  outlining  these  attempts  it  is  wise  to  try 
to  define  what  is  meant  by  reconstruction,  by  conservation,  by 
research  and  by  some  of  the  other  commonly  used  terms. 

WHAT  is  RECONSTRUCTION?  This  word  like  many  another 
in  popular  use  has  almost  as  many  meanings  as  there  are  per- 
sons employing  it.  To  the  medical  man  it  means  the  rebuilding 
of  health  and  physical  strength;  the  injured  soldier  is  to  be 
rehabilitated  to  return  to  the  ranks,  or  to  be  prepared  for  self- 
support  in  civil  life.  To  the  army  engineer  reconstruction 
means  the  rebuilding  of  roads,  railroads,  bridges  and  towns ;  the 
restoration  of  devastated  country.  To  the  citizen  and  business 
man  reconstruction  means  getting  back  to  normal  conditions. 
To  the  propagandist  it  means  the  opportunity  to  put  into  prac- 
tice the  improvements  which  in  his  opinion  are  vital  to  the 
progress  of  the  race.  As  a  somewhat  conservative  definition  the 
following  may  be  offered : 

Reconstruction  is  the  rebuilding  on  normal  peace  lines  of  the 
activities,  mental  and  physical,  which  prevailed  before  the  war, 
with  such  improvement  or  advance  in  ideals,  methods  and 
machinery  as  may  have  been  made  possible  by  recent  experience. 
It  begins  primarily  with  the  returning  soldier,  in  his  rehabilita- 
tion if  necessary,  and  his  return  to  the  industry  which  best  suits 
his  capacities  and  desires.  It  includes  the  placing  of  other  war 
workers  as  conditions  change  and  of  any  human  effort  where  it 
may  be  most  effective.  It  means  better  use  of  our  natural 
resources  in  lands,  minerals,  waters,  and  forests,  to  furnish 
larger  and  more  nearly  equal  opportunities  for  each  citizen  and 
the  placing  of  industry,  including  agriculture,  mining  and  trans- 
portation, on  a  basis  to  meet  the  changed  needs  of  the  country. 


28  WATER  RESOURCES 

In  short,  it  means  the  intelligent  planning  and  execution  of 
plans  for  a  better  community. 

On  grouping  these  reconstruction  problems  and  assembling 
them  in  logical  order,  it  is  seen  that  there  is  behind  each  an 
unsolved  or  partly  solved  question  in  some  one  of  the  physical 
or  biological  sciences  whose  application  in  engineering,  agricul- 
ture or  other  useful  arts  is  fundamental  in  the  public  welfare. 
Here  additional  careful  research  is  required.  For  example,  for 
better  food  production  there  are  required  answers  to  questions 
regarding  soil,  climate  and  waters.  Behind  transportation  are 
certain  geographical  and  other  limitations  affecting  largely 
inland  navigation.  Behind  health,  among  others,  are  such  ques- 
tions as  better  water  supply  and  prevention  of  water-borne 
diseases. 

In  short,  in  our  study  of  reconstruction  problems,  if  we  go 
back  to  the  fundamentals  of  health,  prosperity,  and  comfort  of 
individuals  and  of  the  nation,  we  find  that  as  a  significant  factor 
there  stands  prominent  and  more  complete  knowledge  of  some 
one  simple  substance  whose  occurrence  and  use  demand  a  larger 
survey  accompanied  by  comprehensive  projects  of  research  and 
development  of  effective  means  of  utilizing  the  scientific  and 
technical  knowledge  thus  gained. 

CONSERVATION.  As  part  of  any  reconstruction  program 
there  must  be  included  conservation.  This  word  so  popularly 
used  since  1902  has  become  almost  hackneyed.  It  is  now 
replaced  or  merged  in  the  more  inclusive  and  perhaps  more 
utilitarian  term,  reconstruction,  yet  the  ideal  still  remains,  and 
men  who  were  most  ardent  conservationists  have  turned  their 
zeal  and  energy  to  the  solution  of  the  problems  which  have 
become  acute  because  of  conditions  following  the  world  war. 

During  the  progress  of  the  war  the  principles  of  conserva- 
tion were  exploited  and  immediately  put  into  practice  on  a  scale 
and  with  a  thoroughness  hardly  dreamed  of  by  the  most  ardent 
advocate  of  conservation  in  the  years  gone  by.  The  whole 
nation  willingly  adopted  extreme  measures  which  even  the  most 
visionary  conservationist  had  hardly  expected  to  see  attempted 
even  on  a  modest  scale.  The  methods  tentatively  discussed  in 
earlier  years  to  conserve  and  better  utilize  coal,  oil,  and  other 


INTRODUCTION  29 

fuels,  food  and  forage  were  extensively  practiced.  Considera- 
tion was  given  to  ways  and  means  of  securing  still  greater 
economies ;  forces  were  set  in  motion  which  it  is  hoped  will  bring 
about  the  realization  of  the  dreams  of  enthusiasts  with  refer- 
ence to  conservation  of  other  natural  resources  such  as  water 
powers,  and  on  a  scale  previously  unknown. 

Conservation,  and  to  a  large  part  reconstruction,  at  the 
bottom  is  good  housekeeping.  It  involves  the  idea  of  thrift  and 
of  good  business  management.  The  present  age  differs  from 
those  which  have  gone  before  in  the  appreciation  of  the  need  of 
careful  and  scientific  study  of  natural  resources,  in  the  weigh- 
ing of  costs  and  benefits  in  utilizing  these,  viz.,  in  the  economics 
of  their  use.  The  time  has  passed  when  the  well-informed  man 
boasts  of  the  unlimited  resources  of  the  country ;  it  is  no  longer 
considered  a  mark  of  progress  to  permit  the  great  coal  beds  to 
be  carelessly  mined,  the  forests  to  be  freely  burned  and  the  rivers 
to  be  neglected.  The  study  of  the  management  of  the  affairs  of 
the  government  and  of  the  community  with  reference  to  the 
sources  of  income,  expenditures  and  development  of  the  natural 
resources  has  come  to  be  appreciated  as  never  before. 

It  has  been  a  characteristic  American  trait  to  expatiate  upon 
the  natural  resources  of  our  country.  The  vastness  of  the  area 
and  of  the  mineral  wealth  appeals  to  the  imagination.  It  seems 
to  reflect  glory  upon  all  who  are  so  fortunate  as  to  be  in  such 
a  great  land.  Unconsciously  we  take  credit  to  ourselves  for 
these  resources  as  though  the  fact  that  we  are  living  here  attests 
our  superiority  over  the  rest  of  the  world.  It  would  be  more 
fitting,  however,  instead  of  dwelling  upon  our  own  superior  merit 
in  being  in  such  a  country,  for  us  to  feel  that  these  resources 
impose  a  corresponding  obligation  and  a  duty  to  utilize  them 
in  the  best  way  for  the  welfare  of  mankind.  The  tendency  has 
been,  however,  to  accept  these  wonderful  opportunities  as  a  gift 
to  individuals  and  to  permit  the  stronger  or  shrewder  man  to 
exploit  them  for  private  gain  rather  than  for  the  strengthening 
of  the  nation.  The  unspoken  thought  has  often  been  that  what- 
ever is  good  for  me  should  be  good  for  the  community,  and  that 
my  personal  success  and  that  of  my  friends  measure  the  highest 
achievements. 


30  WATER  RESOURCES 

The  public-spirited  men  who  have  held  to  the  opposite  views, 
namely,  that  the  great  natural  resources  such  as  mineral  wealth 
and  water  power  are  a  public  trust  to  be  administered  for  the 
greater  good  to  the  greatest  number,  can  hardly  hope  to  attain 
immediate  popularity ;  while  the  greatest  number  accept  this  as 
a  matter  of  course,  the  active  aggressive  minority,  whose  plans 
for  personal  gain  may  be  interfered  with,  are  ever  active  in  their 
opposition  to  the  men  whom  they  characterize  as  "visionary  and 
impracticable"  in  their  altruistic  ideals.  Nevertheless,  with  the 
spread  of  reconstruction  demands  these  ideals  are  being  realized 
in  part ;  we  have  reason  to  be  greatly  encouraged  when  we  look 
back  over  the  history  of  the  past  ten  years  and  see  the  awaken- 
ing of  the  public  conscience  and  the  support  which  has  been 
given  to  the  plans  of  conservation. 

Now,  as  never  before,  it  is  being  appreciated  that  a  nation 
like  an  individual  cannot  be  rich  without  proper  economy  and 
that  in  public  affairs,  as  in  private,  the  rules  of  thrift,  of  good 
housekeeping,  of  good  business  management,  must  be  observed. 
As  striking  examples  of  the  need  and  benefit  of  such  national 
thrift  may  be  cited  the  dormant  or  partly  used  opportunities 
in  water  powers  and  related  forces. 

HYDRO-ECONOMICS.  Considering  all  of  the  substances  or 
natural  resources  which  have  to  do  with  health,  comfort  and 
prosperity,  there  is  no  one  which  approaches  in  importance  the 
most  common  of  all  our  minerals,  and  the  only  one  vital  to  life, 
namely,  water.  Water  is  so  common,  its  use  is  so  intimately 
associated  with  every  necessity  and  comfort  that  like  most 
common  things  its  importance  is  overlooked.  It  is  at  the  foun- 
dation not  merely  of  life  itself  but  of  every  industry,  and  upon 
its  control  and  best  use  depend  the  health  and  prosperity  of 
the  human  race.  If,  therefore,  in  our  reconstruction  program 
we  start  with  this  single  fundamental  we  are  at  once  con- 
fronted by  a  group  of  problems  all  dependent  for  their  solu- 
tion upon  a  more  complete  knowledge  not  merely  of  water  and 
the  water  resources  of  the  country  but  of  the  laws  of  nature 
which  govern  the  occurrence  and  use  of  water  as  a  material 
means  of  satisfying  human  needs. 

More  than  this  we  must  be  prepared  to  apply  this  knowledge 


INTRODUCTION  31 

in  an  efficient  manner.  We  should  be  able  to  show  that  the 
results  will  be  worth  more  than  they  cost,  though  these  returns 
may  not  be  in  money  values  but  in  better  health  or  in  ways 
which  make  for  a  higher  civilization. 

To  cover  these  two  conceptions  a  new  term  is  necessary  or  at 
least  one  which  has  not  been  in  common  use.  For  this  purpose 
the  word  "hydro-economics"  is  perhaps  most  suitable  in  that 
the  prefix  conveys  the  idea  of  water  and  is  followed  by  the 
conception  of  its  efficient  employment,  of  utility  or  of  thrift. 

But  what  has  hydro-economics  to  do  with  reconstruction  or 
with  conservation?  A  little  consideration  will  show  that  the 
substance,  water,  is  the  one  mineral  which  as  above  noted  is 
necessary  for  all  life.  It  enters  into  most  of  the  far-reaching 
plans  for  the  rebuilding  or  development  of  the  nation's  resources 
in  men,  materials  or 'industries.  No  activity  of  reconstruction 
nor  even  of  existence,  can  take  place  without  water.  It  is  a 
prerequisite  in  all  far-reaching  projects. 

Often  this  prerequisite  is  not  definitely  recognized  simply 
because  we  infer  that  as  a  matter  of  course  water  exists  in 
proper  quantity  or  quality.  It  goes  without  saying  that  the 
reconstruction  of  the  wounded  soldier  can  only  take  place  under 
the  assumption  that  he  is  provided  with  the  proper  quantity 
and  quality  of  water  for  drinking,  cooking,  bathing,  laundry  and 
other  purposes.  It  is  not  necessary  to  discuss  this  elementary 
fact  in  such  connection.  In  other  lines  of  reconstruction  such, 
for  example,  as  the  utilization  of  desert  or  waste  lands,  the 
question  of  water  supply  is  the  one  large  item  to  be  given  con- 
sideration. Between  these  two  extremes  the  question  of  water 
and  its  use  may  be  found  to  be  involved  more  or  less  directly  in 
every  reconstruction  problem. 

ECONOMICS.  According  to  the  definition  in  the  dictionary 
this  is  the  "science  that  investigates  the  conditions  and  laws 
affecting  the  production,  distribution  and  consumption  of 
wealth  or  the  material  means  of  satisfying  human  desires."  Or 
to  put  the  matter  in  more  homely  form,  it  is  the  consideration 
of  the  reply  demanded  from  every  promoter  or  propagandist, 
"Will  it  pay?" 

Each  scheme  or  project  of  conservation  or  of  reconstruction 


32  WATER  RESOURCES 

or  in  fact  any  undertaking  must  respond  to  the  inquiry,  "Will 
the  result — whether  material  or  moral — justify  the  outlay?" 
The  man  of  affairs  puts  the  question  bluntly  in  the  current 
vernacular,  "What  are  the  profits?"  The  scholar  reaches  the 
same  end  by  asking  as  to  whether  it  will  be  economically  advan- 
tageous. 

Among  the  almost  innumerable  plans  for  promoting  future 
prosperity  choice  must  be  made  of  those  which  are  most  likely 
to  pay.  The  return  or  reward  may  not  necessarily  be  in  money 
value.  In  fact,  the  question  as  to  whether  any  one  line  of  effort 
will  pay  best  must  be  considered  not  in  immediate  financial  terms 
but  in  the  less  tangible  and  more  far-reaching  result  of  attain- 
ment of  the  ideals  of  a  people. 

The  combination  of  the  two  words  hydro  and  economics  may 
be  narrowly  defined  as  the  economics  of  water  supply  or  more 
broadly  stated  as  a  consideration  of  the  question  as  to  whether 
it  will  pay  to  utilize  or  develop  the  natural  resources  in  water 
in  connection  with  one  or  another  of  the  problems  of  recon- 
struction. 

Many  of  the  questions  which  might  be  asked  in  hydro-econom- 
ics may  be  answered  as  soon  as  they  are  stated.  To  take  an 
extreme  case,  no  one  would  hesitate  to  assert  that  any  obtain- 
able amount  of  money  may  be  used  in  procuring  an  adequate 
amount  of  water  for  drinking,  cooking  and  other  purposes 
needed  in  the  rehabilitation  of  our  soldiers.  At  the  other 
extreme  is  the  question  of  state  or  even  national  importance — 
Is  it  possible  and  will  it  pay  to  try  to  procure  an  adequate 
supply  of  water  to  develop  certain  industries  or  to  irrigate 
certain  desert  lands?  That  it  will  pay  and  that  the  results  in 
many  cases  are  well  worth  the  expenditure  has  fortunately  been 
demonstrated  by  extensive  works  already  completed  by  the 
national  government. 

Comfortable  homes  dotting  the  valleys  and  diversified  indus- 
tries located  at  centers  of  population  in  a  formerly  desert 
country  testify  to  the  practical  results  of  trying  out  one  of 
the  numerous  forms  of  hydro-economics,  viz.,  that  of  water 
conservation  by  storage.  For  several  years  prior  to  the  out- 
break of  the  world  war  each  season  showed  progress  in  added 


Plate  II.  A. 

Sagebrush  covered  desert  lands,  typical  of  millions  of  acres  of  good  soil 
valueless  for  lack  of  water.  Irrigable  lands  before  irrigation,  Yakima 
Valley,  Washington. 


Plate  II.  B. 

Home  and  farm,  typical  of  thousands  made  possible  by  conservation  of 
water  by  storage,  Minidoka  Project,  Idaho. 


Plate  II.  C. 

Floods  restrained  by  the  Roosevelt  Reservoir,  Arizona,  water  otherwise 
destructive  held  in  part  for  future  use  in  generation  of  electric  power  and 
for  irrigation  of  arid  lands,  illustrating  double  or  triple  benefits  of  con- 
servation. 


Plate  II.  D. 
Granite  Reef  diversion  dam  on  Salt  River,  Arizona. 


INTRODUCTION  33 

works  both  great  and  small.  Many  projects  for  conservation 
of  water  were  then  being  planned  or  built,  putting  into  visible 
form  an  appreciation  on  the  part  of  the  public  of  the  oppor- 
tunities to  be  enjoyed.  The  period  from  1904  to  1914  was 
particularly  rich  in  results,  the  most  notable  among  these  being 
the  achievements  of  the  United  States  Reclamation  Service  in 
the  construction  of  large  reservoirs  at  the  head  waters  (see  PL 
I.  A)  or  along  the  streams  issuing  from  the  mountains  of  the 
arid  west. 

Some  of  the  largest  and  highest  dams  in  the  world  for  hold- 
ing flood  waters  were  then  built.  At  the  time  of  the  entrance 
of  the  United  States  into  the  war  these  works  were  adding  to 
the  food  supply  and  material  prosperity  of  the  country  through 
the  large  crops  produced  from  lands  which  without  this  supply 
would  have  remained  desert.  The  contrast  between  the  nat- 
urally unproductive  and  valueless  conditions  and  the  highly 
productive  state  to  which  these  lands  have  been  brought  is 
shown  by  Pis.  II.  A  and  B,  the  change  shown  in  the  latter  being 
wrought  by  water  conservation  in  reservoirs  created  by  these 
great  dams. 

The  success  attained  by  the  application  of  the  principles  of 
hydro-economics  or  of  water  conservation  in  the  western  part 
of  the  United  States  prior  to  the  war  had  begun  to  stimulate 
interest  in  similar  undertakings  throughout  the  remainder  of 
the  country  and  of  the  world  in  general.  Prominent  engineers 
from  nearly  every  civilized  land  had  come  to  see  these  reclama- 
tion projects  and  to  study  the  methods  of  laying  out  the  works, 
of  handling  materials,  of  organizing  the  working  force  and 
particularly  of  solving  the  related  economic  and  social  problems. 

The  application  of  the  principles  of  water  conservation  also 
had  a  secondary  but  highly  important  influence  in  stimulating 
studies  directed  toward  increased  efficiency  in  related  work;  the 
efforts  in  this  one  direction  assisted  in  obtaining  higher  economy 
in  other  undertakings.  There  was  thus  put  into  practice  in 
several  branches  of  the  federal  government  a  higher  degree  of 
efficiency  than  had  hitherto  prevailed.  This  was  manifest  par- 
ticularly in  the  direction  of  cost  keeping,  in  making  purchases 
and  in  laying  out  works.  It  may  not  be  too  much  to  claim  that 


34  WATER  RESOURCES 

the  success  attained  by  the  employees  of  the  government  in  the 
practical  application  of  conservation  principles  in  reclamation 
and  in  forestation  did  much  to  strengthen  public  confidence  in 
the  efficiency  of  the  government  in  undertaking  larger  problems 
connected  with  the  operations  of  the  world  war. 

ENGINEERING  RELATIONS.  In  attacking  the  reconstruction 
problems  which  directly  or  indirectly  involve  the  study  of  hydro- 
economics,  it  is  necessary  to  explore  far  back  into  the  funda- 
mentals of  many  of  the  mathematical,  physical  and  biological 
sciences.  In  their  application  in  solving  these  problems  engi- 
neering knowledge  and  skill  are  involved.  In  fact,  the  engineer 
has  the  principal  responsibility.  As  a  man  of  ingenuity  and  of 
vision  he  must  see  the  entire  field  and  initiate  the  work.  Later 
he  must  call  in  the  agriculturist  and  seek  aid  and  advice  from 
the  business  man  and  economist.  In  fact,  for  success  he  must 
supplement  his  skill  by  wide  business  experience  and  be  able  to 
form  correct  opinions  as  to  whether  any  given  undertaking 
apparently  necessary  and  practical  will  be  worth  the  cost. 

Historically  the  original  hydro-economists  or  conservation- 
ists were  the  engineers  whose  names  and  nationalities  are  un- 
known, but  who  during  remote  antiquity  built  in  Egypt,  Meso- 
potamia, India  and  China  the  structures  little  and  big  for  the 
irrigation  or  drainage  of  lands  otherwise  unproductive.  In  this 
sense  reclamation  may  be  said  to  antedate  civilization.  Conser- 
vation, or  reconstruction  as  we  may  now  term  it,  utilized  not 
merely  the  natural  substances  and  forces,  but  turned  to  higher 
uses  and  efforts  of  the  human  race,  elevating  individuals  and 
nations  from  slavish  dependence  upon  the  fluctuation  of  water 
supply  to  a  status  where  each  year  they  could  produce  ample 
food  and  secure  the  comforts  coming  from  assured  and  bountiful 
crops. 

BROADER  RELATION.  Nor  has  this  conservation  of  human 
energies  been  wholly  a  matter  of  past  generations.  One  of  the 
incidents  of  modern  engineering  and  the  application  of  its  prin- 
ciples in  reclamation  of  the  desert  lands  is  that  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  neglected  or  little  considered  natives  of  the  United 
States  and  of  other  countries  where  water  conservation  has  been 
wisely  practiced.  The  improved  conditions,  for  example,  in 


INTRODUCTION  35 

India  and  Egypt,  through  the  work  of  the  British  engineer,  are 
well  known.  In  the  United  States  a  similar  though  less  exten- 
sive result  has  been  obtained  in  providing  needed  water  supply 
for  some  of  the  American  Indian  tribes  or  "Amarinds,"  and  in 
permitting  them  to  practice  better  agriculture  than  was  ever 
before  feasible.  The  immediate  and  direct  result  is  the  improve- 
ment of  the  Indian  laborer.  The  opportunities  offered  at  the 
remote  places  where  he  lives  and  where  storage  reservoirs  are 
being  built  have  lifted  him  in  the  scale  of  civilization  and  have 
made  possible  the  use  of  his  time  which  otherwise  would  have 
been  wasted.  This  condition  is  typified  by  PL  XVII.  A,  which 
shows  some  of  the  members  of  the  Blackfeet  Indian  tribe  work- 
ing on  the  canals  and  embankments  on  their  reservations,  made 
possible  by  water  conservation. 

A  group  of  Apache  Indian  laborers  on  the  Roosevelt  Reservoir 
is  shown  in  PI.  XVII.  B.  These  men  are  members  of  a  tribe 
reputed  to  be  among  the  most  bloodthirsty  in  the  world,  but 
under  fair  treatment  they  have  responded  and  have  dropped, 
outwardly  at  least,  some  of  the  more  obnoxious  of  their  tribal 
customs.  When  paid  a  white  man's  wages  for  a  white  man's 
work,  they  have  adopted  a  white  man's  clothes  and  have  been 
not  only  faithful  but  have  proved  unusually  intelligent  in  their 
work.  Without  this  work  of  water  conservation,  these  men  and 
their  families  would  have  remained  as  roving  "blanket  Indians" 
with  no  means  of  self-support,  being  dependent  upon  the  bounty 
of  the  government  for  their  food.  By  conservation  and  utiliza- 
tion of  the  water  which  rises  within  the  reservation  it  is  practi- 
cable for  them  to  become  self-supporting  citizens  capable  of 
performing  useful  service  to  each  other  and  to  the  community. 

In  reviewing  all  of  these  general  conditions  of  reconstruction 
and  the  application  of  the  principles  of  hydro-economics,  the 
most  striking  fact  is  that  while  large  results  have  already  been 
achieved  and  still  larger  results  are  possible  for  the  public  wel- 
fare, each  large  project  is  hampered,  or  blocked  by  lack  of 
complete  information  on  important  details.  In  other  words, 
research  amply  supported  and  scientifically  conducted  is  needed 
to  make  real  the  vision  of  increased  health,  comfort  and 
prosperity. 


CHAPTER  II 
WATER  IN  GENERAL 

WHAT  is  WATER?  What  do  we  know  about  it  and  how  do 
we  obtain  the  facts  ?  Every  one  knows  what  water  is — for  every 
life  depends  upon  it,  yet  as  in  the  case  of  other  well-known 
substances  in  common  use,  the  wider  it  is  known  the  greater  the 
difficulty  of  giving  complete  answers  to  such  simple  questions. 
The  word  itself  probably  originated  in  northern  Europe.  The 
Greek  equivalent  is  in  frequent  use  as  our  prefix  hydro-  and  the 
Latin  is  aqua ;  the  use  of  these  terms  affording  opportunity  for 
a  wide  range  of  expressions  permitting  nice  shades  of  meaning. 

The  substance  as  we  ordinarily  know  it  and  as  it  forms  the 
basis  of  life  is  a  fluid,  but  we  may  properly  consider  it  as  a 
mineral,  a  portion  of  the  rocky  crust  of  the  earth,  but  one  which 
melts  at  a  temperature  below  that  necessary  for  the  support  of 
life.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  more  than  refer  to  the  fact  that 
from  the  chemical  standpoint  pure  water  consists  of  two  parts 
of  hydrogen  and  one  of  oxygen,  but  as  oxygen  is  about  sixteen 
times  as  heavy  as  hydrogen,  by  weight  water  consists  of  one 
part  of  hydrogen  to  eight  of  oxygen.  The  combination  of  these 
two  gases  is  so  stable  that  to  separate  them  is  usually  required 
a  somewhat  powerful  electric  current  or  chemical  reaction 
involving  the  absorption  of  considerable  heat.  It  is  the  most 
important  of  all  chemical  agents,  for  it  takes  into  solution  most 
of  the  substances  with  which  it  is  in  contact,  and  is  the  universal 
life  fluid.  Because  of  this  eagerness  in  taking  to  itself  portions 
of  other  substances  it  is  practically  never  pure  unless  artificially 
prepared. 

From  the  physical  standpoint  water  is  also  of  the  highest 
interest  and  importance.  It  is  continually  in  motion,  even  as  a 
solid;  as  ice  it  is  moving  slowly  under  the  influence  of  gravity, 
settling  or  becoming  consolidated  by  its  own  weight  and  almost 


WATER  IN  GENERAL  37 

imperceptibly  flowing  toward  some  lower  point.  In  its  change 
to  a  liquid  it  absorbs  great  quantities  of  heat  and  contracts  in 
bulk,  continuing  to  do  so  until  a  point  of  maximum  density  is 
reached  a  few  degrees  above  freezing,  and  then  it  expands. 
These  peculiarities  are  of  fundamental  importance  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  natural  phenomena  and  of  many  engineering  matters. 

An  equally  interesting  and  important  physical  change  is  that 
which  takes  place  when  water  changes  into  a  gas  or  vapor,  again 
absorbing  great  quantities  of  heat  and  expanding  enormously 
in  volume.  Upon  these  changes  depend  other  great  natural 
phenomena;  the  explanation  of  weather  conditions  and  of  the 
efficiency  of  innumerable  mechanical  devices  rests  upon  a  full 
knowledge  of  the  behavior  of  water  as  a  gas  or  vapor  under 
changing  conditions  of  temperature  and  pressure. 

In  order  to  discuss  the  properties  of  water,  what  it  is  and 
what  it  does,  an  infinite  number  of  ways  of  approach  are  offered. 
Each  of  the  various  sciences  might  be  taken  up  in  some  arbitrary 
order  such  as  chemistry,  physics,  biology,  meteorology  and 
others,  but  for  the  present  purpose — that  of  considering  the 
economics  of  water  and  the  application  of  its  properties  to 
pending  reconstruction  or  conservation  problems — the  arrange- 
ment to  be  followed  may  perhaps  most  properly  be  that  of  the 
use  or  application  of  wrater  to  the  human  needs  and  to  the  public 
welfare. 

USES  or  WATER.  These  needs  of  humanity  are  infinite  in 
number, — a  catalogue  of  them  would  fill  a  book, — but  for  con- 
venience of  discussion  they  may  be  classified  in  several  great 
divisions,  in  each  of  which  the  benefits  to  be  derived  through  the 
application  of  engineering  skill  in  the  use  of  water  may  be 
weighed  against  the  probable  cost.  In  the  first  of  these  groups 
almost  any  cost  is  permissible  since  it  involves  the  saving  or 
prolonging  of  life.  An  individual  in  the  desert  may  be  willing 
to  give  all  that  he  has  for  a  drink  of  water ;  a  community  may 
be  justified  in  expending  every  dollar  it  can  borrow  to  procure 
the  necessary  life-giving  fluid.  On  the  other  extreme,  it  is  often 
necessary  to  weigh  carefully  the  anticipated  costs  against  the 
benefits.  The  difference  of  a  few  dollars  of  prospective  profit 
or  loss  may  determine  the  fate  of  great  enterprises.  In  turn, 


38  WATER  RESOURCES 

the  money  loss  may  be  offset  by  considerations  of  health  or 
aesthetic  values  which  may  justify  a  financially  losing  venture. 

First  and  foremost  come  those  human  needs  and  uses  which 
relate  to  the  procuring  of  water  for  drinking  or  household  use. 
While  man  may  exist  for  a  time  without  industry  or  may  live  for 
a  month  without  food,  yet  the  lack  of  drinking  water  for  two  or 
three  days  is  usually  fatal.  To  enjoy  good  health  the  quality 
must  be  good  and  the  quantity  ample.  Thus  the  procuring  of 
an  adequate  supply  of  good  water  for  drinking  purposes  out- 
ranks all  other  human  needs  and  stands  at  the  head  of  all  plans 
for  conservation,  reconstruction  or  other  applications  of  hydro- 
economics. 

Second  come  those  uses  of  wrater  wrhich  relate  to  food  pro- 
duction. As  in  the  case  of  mankind,  no  animals  or  plants 
used  for  food  can  live  or  flourish  without  an  adequate  amount 
of  water  at  the  right  time.  Hence  the  provisions  for  watering 
domestic  animals  and  for  regulation  of  supply  to  forage  and 
food  plants  by  irrigation,  drainage  and  flood  protection  rank 
next  after  drinking  wrater. 

Third,  in  importance  to  mankind,  is  the  use — not  often  recog- 
nized, but  of  growing  importance,  coming  logically  in  order 
after  the  provisions  for  drinking  water  and  food — of  flowing 
water  in  sanitary  engineering  and  particularly  in  the  disposal 
of  waste,  both  sewage  and  that  from  various  industries. 

Fourth  in  order  come  the  industrial  relations,  the  employ- 
ment of  water  in  manufacturing,  in  making  steam,  in  water 
power  and  other  mechanical  ways.  These,  as  well  as  the  uses 
just  noted,  involve  certain  applications  of  biological  as  well 
as  physical  laws  and  require  a  knowledge  and  application  of 
engineering,  agriculture,  medicine,  and  other  useful  arts. 

Fifth  in  importance,  from  the  standpoint  of  human  needs  and 
development,  comes  the  transportation  of  men  and  goods.  Inci- 
dentally, while  this  is  last  in  the  category  of  necessities  of  life, 
comfort,  and  prosperity,  it  ranks  first  in  legal  standing,  being 
practically  the  only  use  recognized  in  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States.  It  thus  has  precedence  in  the  eyes  of  the  law 
over  many  of  the  more  fundamentally  important  applications 
of  water. 


WATER  IN  GENERAL  39 

This  condition  arises  from  the  fact  that  at  the  time  when  the 
constitution  was  adopted  it  was  tacitly  assumed  that  there  was 
water  enough  for  every  one  and  that  there  was  no  necessity  for 
safeguarding  it  in  the  interest  of  the  public  or  of  the  common- 
wealth. Because  of  this  situation  there  are  now  presented  under 
the  requirements  of  modern  life  many  problems  difficult  of  solu- 
tion, in  which  the  present  interpretations  of  common  law  as  well 
as  of  statute  law  relating  to  water  rights  have  proved  serious 
stumblingblocks  to  the  best  employment  of  the  water  resources 
of  the  country.  Thus  in  order  that  our  knowledge  of  the  physi- 
cal and  biological  sciences  above  noted  may  be  properly  applied 
to  engineering  and  agriculture,  it  is  often  necessary  that  the 
legal  situation  be  given  study.  In  fact,  a  certain  amount  of 
research  must  be  conducted  into  the  legal  phase  of  some  of 
these  subjects  as  well  as  into  the  physical  data  needed  for  the 
solution  of  many  practical  problems. 

Taking  up  each  of  these  groups  of  human  needs  and  uses  of 
water  and  going  back  into  fundamentals,  it  is  seen  that  each 
involves  for  complete  performance  a  full  knowledge  of  one  or 
another  branch  of  science.  Also  a  little  inquiry  shows  that  our 
present  knowledge  of  this  science,  while  relatively  large,  is  by 
no  means  adequate  to  answer  all  of  the  important  questions. 
For  example,  in  the  first  use  of  water,  that  of  prolonging  life, 
we  come  at  once  into  a  branch  of  biological  science  and  imme- 
diately find  that  our  present  knowledge  of  the  part  played  by 
water  in  many  functions  of  life  is  but  partly  employed.  Again, 
in  the  second  use, — that  of  production  of  food, — the  part 
played  by  water  in  the  soil  offers  a  broad  field  for  research. 

WHERE  WATER  is  FOUND.  Water  is  everywhere ;  it  is  in, 
through  and  surrounding  all  substances  with  but  few  exceptions. 
It  is  in  the  air  we  breathe,  it  forms  the  greater  part  of  the 
weight  of  our  bodies  and  of  our  food,  it  is  essential  to  all  living 
things,  animal  or  vegetable,  and  forms  a  large  proportion  of 
the  solid  crust  of  the  earth,  as  well  as  covers  the  greater 
portion  of  it.  To  adequately  study  water  in  all  of  its  varying 
aspects,  in  its  employment  for  man's  needs  and  in  his  occupa- 
tions, we  must  traverse  almost  the  entire  range  of  human  knowl- 


40  WATER  RESOURCES 

edge  and  especially  go  into  the  various  branches  of  physical 
and  biological  sciences,  discussing  the  arts  which  enable  these 
to  be  practically  applied  to  engineering,  agriculture  and 
innumerable  other  industries. 

Water  is  not  only  all-pervasive,  but  is  continually  traveling — 
sometimes  very  slowly,  progressing  only  a  few  inches  or  feet 
during  a  year  or  century,  again  with  great  rapidity  encircling 
the  globe  as  the  invisible  molecule  travels  in  the  form  of  vapor 
in  the  upper  atmosphere  or  as  a  portion  of  a  visible  cloud  drifts 
across  the  continent.  At  a  little  slower  speed,  after  descending 
in  the  form  of  rain,  it  may  flow  from  the  higher  mountains  to 
the  ocean  and  later  wander  in  great  oceanic  currents  from  the 
equator  to  the  pole  and  back  again ;  precipitated  as  snow  it  may 
become  solidified  in  the  body  of  a  glacier,  imperceptibly  moving 
onward.  Again,  caught  in  the  rocks  it  may  percolate  with 
extreme  slowness,  being  held  entrapped  perhaps  for  centuries ; 
absorbed  by  a  plant  or  assimilated  by  an  animal  it  may  take 
part  in  life's  activities.1 

In  the  same  way  that  it  permeates  all  substances,  its  study 
leads  the  student  into  fields  often  apparently  far  remote  from 
those  into  which  he  originally  entered.  In  its  economic  relation 
and  in  the  comparison  of  costs  and  benefits  derived  by  mankind 
in  its  utilization  there  is  correspondingly  wide  range.  No  defi- 
nite limits  of  cost  of  its  employment  can  be  fixed  in  advance  as 
conditions  change  with  great  rapidity.  For  this  reason  it  is  of 
great  importance  that  certain  standards  of  comparison  be  set 
from  time  to  time  that  can  be  used  by  the  engineer  and  promoter 
of  new  enterprises  since  these  comparisons  so  largely  determine 
human  activities,  for  example,  in  the  works  which  may  be  under- 
taken in  the  production  of  food  or  in  providing  facilities  for 
commerce.  The  question  whether  a  given  enterprise  will  be 
worth  what  it  costs  is  ever  new  and  compelling. 

SCIENCE  INVOLVED.  The  number  of  branches  of  human 
knowledge  or  science  concerned  with  water  and  its  application 

i  The  journey  of  a  particle  of  water  is  interestingly  described  by  Prof. 
H.  L.  Fairchild  in  a  series  of  articles,  entitled,  "Adventures  of  a  Watermol," 
in  The  Scientific  Monthly  for  January,  February,  and  March,  1917. 


WATER  IN  GENERAL  41 

to  the  needs  of  men  is  so  great  as  to  be  an  embarrassment. 
It  is  difficult  to  decide  where  to  begin  in  a  study  of  this  magni- 
tude ;  it  becomes  necessary  to  arbitrarily  select  some  point  in 
the  cycle  of  changes  which  lead  into  the  physical  and  biological 
groups  of  knowledge.  A  beginning  might  be  made  by  consider- 
ing water  as  a  rock  forming  a  part  of  the  earth's  surface  and 
from  this  condition  tracing  its  transformation  into  a  fluid  and 
gas. 

It  is  more  satisfactory  in  our  study  of  water,  however,  to 
start  at  the  other  extreme  and  begin  by  considering  it  as  a  vapor 
forming  part  of  the  atmosphere  which  surrounds  the  earth  and 
as  such  breathed  by  all  animals  and  absorbed  by  plants.  In 
the  air  it  is  visible  only  when  it  forms  in  small  drops  which  we 
know  as  clouds  or  fog.  In  the  orderly  consideration  we  may 
thus  begin  with  the  science  which  treats  of  water  in  the  atmos- 
phere, or  meteorology.  This  in  its  lesser  meaning  is  a  discus- 
sion of  those  things  which  are  in  the  air ;  it  treats  of  the  atmos- 
phere and  its  phenomena,  the  variations  of  heat  and  moisture, 
the  winds  and  storms. 

But  the  drops  of  water  in  the  air  falling  upon  the  earth 
quickly  pass  out  of  the  dominion  of  meteorology  into  that  of 
another  group  of  physical  sciences  known  as  hydrology  or 
hydrography,  geology  or  geography,  and  bring  into  question 
many  matters  which  are  treated  under  the  head  of  hydraulics, 
hydrostatics  and  hydrometrics.  In  these  physical  sciences  a 
vast  amount  of  information  has  been  collected  but  still  further 
research  is  needed  in  order  to  make  much  of  this  available  for 
present  uses. 

Passing  to  the  more  intimate  needs  of  water,  we  come  into  the 
group  of  biological  science  in  which  the  phenomena  are  far 
more  complicated  and  even  less  understood  than  in  the  physical 
group  above  enumerated.  These  have  to  do  primarily  with 
health  and  vital  functions,  with  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
water  needed  for  drinking  and  for  household  purposes.  They 
lead  into  agriculture  and  its  involved  ramifications,  to  the  pro- 
duction of  fish  and  to  studies  of  lower  forms  of  life  dependent 
upon  moisture  conditions.  To  enumerate  all  of  these  would  be 
unprofitable  at  the  present  time,  but  it  is  sufficient  to  call 


42  WATER  RESOURCES 

attention  to  their  wide  range  and  to  accentuate  the  fact  that 
we  have  hardly  begun  to  make  the  studies  needed  for  the  profit- 
able consideration  and  use  of  the  facts  about  us. 

In  considering  "the  things  which  are  in  the  air,"  the  one 
substance  which  is  of  chief  interest  to  us  in  this  connection  is 
water.  This  occurs  mainly  as  a  gas  or  vapor  characterized  here 
as  elsewhere  by  an  endless  cycle  of  changes  and  variations  in 
quantity,  quality  and  appearance.  The  air  may  be  apparently 
dry  and  yet  contain  a  trace  of  water  vapor,  or  saturated  to  the 
point  where  with  lower  temperature  all  the  water  can  no  longer 
exist  as  a  gas  and  the  water  falls  as  rain  or  gathers  as  dew. 

METEOROLOGY  is  the  oldest  of  sciences  in  the  sense  that  all 
savages,  and  presumably  the  prehistoric  men,  studied  the 
weather  and  recorded  unconsciously  or  otherwise  the  changing 
seasons  and  the  conditions  which  affected  their  personal  com- 
fort, health,  and  food  supply.  In  the  mind  of  primitive  man 
the  facts  connected  with  the  weather  and  with  the  movements 
of  heavenly  bodies  were  closely  related;  the  foundations  of 
astronomy  and  of  meteorology  were  laid  together.  A  mass 
of  observations  and  deductions  more  or  less  systematically 
arranged  has  been  accumulated  from  time  immemorial;  out  of 
these  have  grown  many  sayings  handed  down  from  our  remote 
ancestors.  It  is  only  within  recent  years,  however,  that  the 
invention  of  instruments  has  made  it  possible  to  record  the 
facts  of  weather  changes  and  to  permit  accurate  comparisons 
or  scientific  deductions  regarding  changes  of  atmospheric 
pressure,  of  heat  and  cold,  with  the  accompanying  variations  in 
clouds  and  in  rain. 

While  countless  individuals  have  made  records  of  weather 
changes,  these  have  necessarily  been  at  isolated  localities,  mere 
specks  on  the  map.  As  weather  is  a  matter  of  changes  which 
take  place  throughout  the  entire  atmosphere  surrounding  the 
globe,  these  individual  observations  have  had  relatively  little 
scientific  value.  It  was  only  when  facilities  were  offered  for 
simultaneous  recording  and  exchange  of  information  by  means 
of  the  electric  telegraph  that  it  was  possible  to  obtain  valuable 
comparisons  of  weather  conditions  over  broad  areas  and  thus 
make  deductions  from  the  phenomena  occurring  at  widely  sepa- 


WATER  IN  GENERAL  43 

rated  points.  Because  of  this  necessity  of  widespread  simul- 
taneous observation  it  has  naturally  resulted  that  the  study  of 
meteorology  on  a  large  scale  or  a  research  of  this  character  has 
become  a  function  of  the  general  government. 

The  accumulation  of  observations  on  rain-  and  snowfall,  sun- 
shine and  cloudiness,  pressure  and  temperature  changes,  floods 
and  droughts,  and  their  effect  upon  crop  production,  industry 
and  transportation  is  very  great ;  much  of  it  still  requires  care- 
ful arrangement  and  study.  But  although  this  accumulated 
mass  of  more  or  less  related  data  at  times  seems  appalling  to 
the  investigator,  yet  when  he  begins  to  get  into  it  he  discovers 
that  it  is  only  a  tithe  of  what  is  needed  in  the  solution  of  any 
particular  problem,  such  as  that  of  flood  control  or  of  the 
increase  of  crop  production  within  any  particular  area.  He 
must  have  more  figures  and  is  urgently  demanding  that  research 
be  continued  into  many  lines  hardly  yet  touched. 

Following  along  in  logical  order  the  course  of  the  water  pre- 
cipitated we  pass  from  the  consideration  of  things  in  the  air, 
or  meteorology,  to  those  of  the  earth,  or  geology.  Before  going 
into  this  latter  science,  there  are  certain  intervening  research 
groups  to  which  reference  should  be  made. 

HYDROGRAPHY  AND  HYDROLOGY.  When  the  rain  or  snow  con- 
densing out  from  the  atmosphere  descends  upon  the  earth  it 
soon  becomes  a  part  of  the  surface  features  and  thus  passes 
out  of  the  domain  of  meteorology,  as  strictly  defined,  and 
becomes  the  subject  of  study  of  another  group  of  sciences 
usually  known  as  hydrography  or  hydrology.  The  difference 
in  significance  of  these  two  terms  may  be  best  illustrated  by 
following  the  analogy  between  the  similar  words  geography  and 
geology.  The  word  hydrography  implies  a  description  of  water 
bodies,  particularly  the  survey  of  coast  lines  and  of  the  bottoms 
of  harbors,  and  preparation  of  charts  of  navigable  waters. 
The  meaning  of  the  word  has  also  been  extended  to  include  the 
mapping  of  lakes  and  streams  and  a  description  of  these  as 
regards  their  relative  size  and  location. 

Hydrology  is  defined  as  being  more  general  in  nature,  being 
the  science  which  treats  of  water,  its  properties,  phenomena 
and  distribution  over  the  earth's  surface.  The  term  has  also 


44  WATER  RESOURCES 

been  used  with  reference  to  underground  water  as  distinguished 
from  hydrography,  which  is  more  often  applied  to  surface  water 
supplies  and  sources.  The  point  to  be  observed  is  that  while 
meteorology  considers  among  other  things  the  water  in  the 
atmosphere  surrounding  the  earth,  the  moment  that — as  a  solid 
in  the  form  of  snow  or  ice  or  as  a  liquid  in  rain — it  strikes  the 
earth,  further  study  falls  within  the  scope  of  the  sciences  now 
described. 

Hydrography  or  the  survey  of  the  larger  navigable  bodies  is 
for  the  most  part  a  function  of  the  national  government,  since 
it  alone  has  the  authority  and  means  of  charting  the  navigable 
waters  which  by  law  are  under  its  exclusive  control.  To  a  less 
extent  the  data  on  hydrology  must  be  obtained  by  governmental 
agencies  because  of  the  fact  that  streams  flow  independently  of 
state  or  political  boundaries  and  because  of  the  fact  that  many 
interstate  industrial  relations  are  concerned.  Studies  and  obser- 
vations have  been  somewhat  widely  conducted  by  individuals  or 
corporations,  particularly  in  connection  with  the  development 
of  water  power.  Thus  the  efforts  of  employees  of  the  govern- 
ment are  supplemented  by  data  privately  obtained. 

As  stated  by  Meyer1  this  science  of  hydrology  is  fundamental 
to  the  solution  of  many  problems  in  water  power,  water  supply, 
sewerage,  sewage  disposal,  drainage,  irrigation,  navigation,  and 
flood  protection  and  prevention.  Although  extending  to  a  large 
field  of  engineering  science,  hydrology  itself  is  founded  upon 
numerous  other  sciences  as  well  as  upon  a  large  body  of  physical 
data  peculiar  to  itself. 

In  the  description  given  by  Mead2  he  calls  attention  to  the 
fact  that  hydrology  "treats  of  the  laws  of  distribution  and 
occurrence  of  water  over  the  earth's  surface,  and  within  the 
geographical  strata  in  sanitary,  agricultural  and  commercial 
relations."  He  further  states :  "We  must  to  an  extent  at  least 
seek  information  from  meteorology,  geography,  geology,  physi- 
ography, agriculture,  forestry  and  from  the  field  of  hydraulic 
engineering  of  which  hydrology  is  the  basic  study." 

1  Meyer,  Adolph  F.,  "The  Elements  of  Hydrology,"  John  Wiley  &  Sons, 
1917,  487  pages,  illustrated. 

2  Mead,  Daniel  W.,  "Hydrology,  The  Fundamental  Basis  of  Hydraulic 
Engineering,"  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  1919,  650  pages,  illustrated. 


WATER  IN  GENERAL  45 

In  this  science  as  in  that  of  meteorology,  while  there  have 
been  accumulated  great  volumes  of  data,  many  of  which  await 
compilation,  yet  the  amount  available  shrinks  into  insignificance 
when  compared  with  the  growing  demands  of  the  engineer  who 
is  trying  to  meet  the  needs  of  modern  industry.  More  and  more 
investigation  and  research  are  demanded  if  he  is  to  be  prepared 
for  the  developments  which  are  waiting  upon  the  obtaining  of 
such  facts. 

GEOGRAPHY,  GEOLOGY  AND  PHYSIOGRAPHY.  As  indicated 
above,  this  group  of  sciences  follows  in  logical  order  in  the  study 
of  the  water  resources  of  any  large  area.  The  first  of  these 
just  named  is  concerned  mainly  with  the  features  of  the  earth's 
surface  (as  they  are  now  found);  the  second,  geology,  with  the 
history  or  way  in  which  the  earth's  surface  has  been  brought 
to  its  present  condition  largely  by  water  action ;  physiography 
gives  special  attention  to  the  present  land  forms  and  the  way  in 
which  they  were  produced  largely  by  the  influence  of  water. 

BIOLOGICAL  SCIENCES.  As  we  follow  the  vagaries  of  water 
movement  from  the  inanimate  world  of  gases,  liquids,  and  rocks, 
we  quickly  pass  into  the  world  of  life  of  which  we  ourselves  are 
a  part  and  concerning  whose  varied  phenomena  we  know  much 
but  have  only  entered  upon  the  threshold  of  knowledge.  The 
first  fact  which  confronts  us  as  indicated  elsewhere  is  that  life — 
plant  or  animal — is  dependent  upon  water,  and  cannot  survive 
without  it,  nor  prosper  except  when  within  a  certain  relatively 
narrow  range  of  quantity,  quality  and  temperature. 

The  ordinary  plants  flourish  and  fructify  only  when  the 
water  content  in  the  soil  exceeds,  say,  8  or  10  per  cent  and  is 
less  than  16  or  20  per  cent.  Animals  need  a  certain  limited 
quantity,  but  suffer  if  this  is  notably  reduced  or  are  quickly 
drowned  by  an  excess.  Thus  the  general  statement  may  be 
made  that  every  division  of  biology,  including  botany,  zoology 
and  various  subdivisions  of  these,  touches  an  infinite  number  of 
points  concerning  the  occurrence  of  water — its  supply  and  use. 

APPLICATION  TO  HUMAN  NEEDS.  The  discussion  of  the  uses 
of  water  to  supply  human  needs  ramifies  into  each  of  the  sciences 
above  enumerated  and  into  fields  not  yet  explored  and  in  which 
research  is  needed.  These  matters  may  be  considered,  either 


46  WATER  RESOURCES 

under  the  somewhat  arbitrary  classification  of  the  sciences  or 
more  properly  in  the  immediate  importance  of  water  to  human 
life  as  described  on  page  37,  viz.,  first  in  drinking,  second  in 
food  supply,  and  so  on  through  the  complicated  industries  or 
arts  contributing  to  the  health  and  prosperity  of  nations  as 
well  as  of  individuals.  All  of  these  items  fall  under  the  general 
head  of  hydro-economics  or  of  water  conservation  and  use. 
This  discussion  might  proceed  along  various  lines,  but  for  pres- 
ent purposes  it  is  more  desirable  to  take  up  certain  of  the  larger 
items  out  of  the  strict  order  of  scientific  procedure  and  to  dis- 
cuss such  matters  as  the  occurrence  of  water,  the  way  in  which 
precipitation  is  measured  and  how  it  varies,  the  effect  of  forests 
and  mountains,  and  the  disappearance  of  water  into  the  atmos- 
phere by  evaporation. 

In  reviewing  the  entire  field  of  water  conservation  and  use 
from  this,  the  human  standpoint,  we  may  then  consider: 

1.  The  occurrence  of  water  in  nature  as  described  in  the 
sciences  above  enumerated. 

2.  Uses  of  water  such  as  have  been  developed  or  may  grow 
out  of  additional  human  needs. 

3.  Legal  relations  or  limitation  imposed  by  man-made  laws. 

4.  Methods  of  control  and  use  which  must  take  into  account 
the  laws  of  nature  and  of  man  with  their  application  in  bene- 
fiting humanity. 

In  carrying  out  this  general  plan  the  next  subject  after  the 
properties  of  water  is  that  of  its  occurrence  in  nature,  begin- 
ning— as  previously  stated — with  the  first  visible  appearance 
when  the  water  falls  from  the  clouds  and  before  it  strikes  the 
earth  in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow  or  when  it  is  visible  as  dew. 


CHAPTER  III 
PRECIPITATION 

RAINFALL.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  the  rain  comes  from 
the  visible  clouds  which  float  above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  but 
it  is  not  always  as  well  understood  that  these  clouds  are  formed 
by  water  which  has  been  pumped  or  raised  by  the  sun's  energy 
from  the  surface  of  the  oceans,  rivers  or  leaves  of  the  forest  or 
fields.  Practically  all  mechanical  energy  can  be  traced  back  to 
the  sun.  When  we  see  the  great  torrents  of  water  rushing  down 
the  mountain  sides  or  falling  over  precipices  as  at  Niagara,  we 
are  simply  viewing  the  results  of  an  infinitely  small  portion  of 
the  sun's  energy  which  has  been  expended  in  lifting  this  water 
from  the  earth's  surface  to  the  clouds.  Moreover,  it  is  safe  to 
infer  that  any  change  in  the  quantity  of  energy  continually 
flowing  from  the  sun  may  have  far-reaching  resultant  effect 
on  the  rain  or  weather.1 

To  understand  fully  the  action  which  takes  place  in  the  crea- 
tion of  water  vapor,  in  the  diffusion  of  this  around  the  globe 
and  in  the  condensation  of  portions  from  time  to  time  in  the 
form  of  rain,  it  is  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
lowering  of  the  temperature  may  result  in  condensation  of  the 
invisible  vapor  which  exists  at  all  times  in  the  atmosphere.  This 
chilled  vapor  gathers  into  minute  drops  or  ice  spicules  forming 
fog  or  clouds.  As  these  particles  increase  in  size  and  gain  in 
weight  they  are  able  to  move  downward  through  the  support- 
ing air  and  finally  to  descend  as  rain  or  as  snow,  sleet,  or  hail. 

The  precipitation  of  water  is  thus  intermittent  and  is  gov- 
erned by  forces  far  beyond  the  control  of  man.  This  fact  has 
not  always  been  recognized;  even  today  there  are  many  per- 
sons, with  whom  "a  little  knowledge  is  a  dangerous  thing,"  who 

i  See  Monthly  Weather  Review,  December,  1918,  Vol.  46,  p.  574,  footnote 
5,  and  January,  1919,  Vol.  47,  pp.  1-4  (Brooks). 


48  WATER  RESOURCES 

believe  that  by  bombarding  the  heavens  or  by  the  use  of  some 
mysterious  mechanical  or  chemical  means  the  greatly  longed- 
for  rain  may  be  produced.  Rain  is  also  distributed  irregularly 
over  the  surface  of  the  globe,  being  often  in  excess  in  one  locality 
and  deficient  in  another.  It  is  this  irregularity  of  distribution 
in  space  and  in  time  which  gives  rise  to  most  of  the  needs  of 
research  and  of  engineering  applications  of  the  results  of  study. 

The  meteorological  discussions1  now  available  describe  the 
various  factors  influencing  the  formation  of  clouds  and  the 
precipitation  of  their  burden  in  the  form  of  rain.  Confining 
ourselves  to  a  consideration  of  the  rain  after  it  strikes  the  earth, 
the  first  and  most  obvious  problem  is  that  of  measuring  the 
quantity  and  ascertaining  the  amount  and  duration  of  the  rain. 
It  is  now  generally  assumed  that  if  we  can  make  accurate  meas- 
urements and  preserve  the  records  of  what  has  taken  place  in 
the  past  we  may  be  able  to  predict  in  a  general  way  what  will 
take  place  in  the  future  and  make  provision  accordingly. 

Prophecies  as  to  the  time  and  amount  of  rainfall  and  conse- 
quently of  the  supply  of  water  available  for  the  needs  of  man- 
kind are  of  vital  importance  in  many  industrial  operations. 
Each  farmer,  or  civil  engineer,  must  be  something  of  a  prophet ; 
according  to  the  original  sense  of  the  word  he  must  "speak  for 
the  gods,"  interpreting  the  laws  of  nature  as  he  understands 
them.  Like  the  prophets  of  old  the  engineers  of  the  present  day 
are  educated  in  the  schools  to  translate  and  apply  "the  signs  of 
the  times."  The  point  to  be  emphasized  as  noted  above  is  that 
in  all  of  these  necessary  predictions  as  to  what  may  take  place 
in  the  future  we  are  basing  our  assumptions  upon  the  stability 
of  the  range  of  fluctuations  and  the  fact  that  the  future  will 
repeat  the  history  of  the  past.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  these 
records  of  past  happenings,  whether  of  rain  or  of  river  flow, 
have  their  greatest  value.  While  records  of  rainfall,  of  floods 
and  droughts  may  have  a  certain  scientific  interest  in  them- 
selves, yet  their  real  value  arises  from  this  assumption.  At  the 
same  time  the  fact  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  that  this  is 

i  "Introductory  Meteorology,"  prepared  and  issued  under  the  auspices 
of  the  National  Research  Council,  1918.  Also,  Humphreys,  W.  J.,  "Physics 
of  the  Air,"  Journal  of  Franklin  Institute,  Vol.  185,  April  and  May,  1918, 
pp.  517-538,  611-647. 


PRECIPITATION  49 

only  .an  assumption  and  that  the  rain  and  the  river  flow  are 
rarely  twice  alike. 

In  order  to  obtain  as  correct  conceptions  as  possible  regard- 
ing these  fundamental  assumptions  it  is  desirable  to  consider 
the  cause  of  precipitation.  To  this  end  the  following  extracts 
have  been  made  from  a  statement  prepared  by  Dr.  Charles  F. 
Brooks,  meteorologist,  United  States  Weather  Bureau. 

CAUSES  OF  RAINFALL.  Many  have  been  the  speculations  as 
to  the  cause  of  rainfall.  In  biblical  times,  the  doors  of  heaven 
were  opened  and  the  rain  descended.  Observers  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries,  however,  were  not  satisfied  with  such 
a  simple  explanation  and  substituted  some  which  were  more 
suited  to  their  everyday  experiences  on  the  earth's  surface. 
Thus,  Dr.  W.  Fulke  in  his  "Booke  of  Meteors,"  England,  1563 
(later  edition,  1640),  explains  that  rain  clouds  are  condensa- 
tions of  wet  vapors,  others  of  dry  ones.  Dark  clouds  are  said  to 
be  dirty ;  rainfall  comes  when  heat  dissolves  the  cloud,  letting 
out  the  water  inside.  Hail  is  from  great  heat  which  makes  large 
raindrops  and  this  comes  together  and  freezes  into  square 
blocks. 

In  "Speculum  Mundi,"  1665,  the  author,  John  Swan,  tells 
us  that  the  devil  is  the  cause  of  "prodigious  rains,"  such  as  falls 
of  "blood,"  fishes,  pebbles,  and  frogs.  The  red  rains  actually 
are  red  from  dust  or  algae;  rains  of  fishes,  pebbles,  and  frogs 
are  made  possible  by  the  occurrence  of  waterspouts,  dust  whirls, 
or  tornadoes  (cf.  McAtee,  "Showers  of  Organic  Matter," 
Monthly  Weather  Review,  May,  1917,  pp.  217-224).  Swan 
says  also  that  the  hail  of  summer  is  from  violent  antiperistasis 
which  brings  great  cold  from  above,  forced  up  by  the  lower 
great  heat.  This  heat  also  makes  snow  and  rain.  "Siamese 
children  believe  that  when  many  angels  get  into  the  same  bath 
at  the  same  time,  water  runs  over  the  side,  and  it  rains." 
(Symons*  Meteorological  Magazine,  January,  1918.) 

The  first  scientific  explanation  took  definite  form  at  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century  (1784)  when  James  Hutton,  a  Scotch- 
man, published  a  theory  of  rain.  His  idea  is  that  rain  is  caused 
by  the  rising  of  warm,  moist  air  into  the  cold  upper  air.  The 
mixture  of  portions  of  the  atmosphere  at  different  temperatures 


50  WATER  RESOURCES 

and  sufficiently  saturated  with  moisture  was  thought  to  produce 
most  of  the  rain.  He  recognized  that  wind,  temperature,  and 
pressure  have  effects  on  rainfall.  This  apparently  reasonable 
theory  was  accepted  for  a  long  time  as  the  principal  cause  of 
rain.  Computations,  however,  of  the  possible  rainfall  from 
mixture  showed  that  this  could  yield  little.  If  saturated  air 
at  10  degrees  and  20  degrees  Centigrade  are  mixed  in  equal 
volumes,  the  result  of  the  mixture  will  be  air  with  a  temperature 
of  about  15.3  degrees  Centigrade,  and  precipitated  moisture 
amounting  to  0.2  gram  per  cubic  meter. 

Radiation  is  hardly  more  effective  than  mixture  in  producing 
rainfall,  since  it  can  rarely  cool  a  great  thickness  of  air  suffi- 
ciently to  produce  appreciable  precipitation.  In  some  thick 
radiation  fogs,  there  may  be  a  drizzle  which  in  the  course  of 
hours  may  produce  0.01-0.05  or  more  inch  of  precipitation. 

The  fact  that  rainfall  follows  great  battles  was  noted  in  early 
Roman  times ;  but  recently  the  occurrence  of  such  rain  has  been 
ascribed  to  the  explosions,  or  perhaps  to  the  added  number  of 
condensation  nuclei  added  to  the  atmosphere.  That  the  occur- 
rence of  rainfall  after  battles  is  no  more  frequent  or  extreme 
than  after  any  outdoor  operation  which  is  planned  and  car- 
ried on  in  fair  weather  has  been  proved  many  times,  or,  to  state 
the  matter  in  another  way — the  period  of  fair  weather  favoring 
or  inducing  battles  or  other  field  work,  will  probably  be  followed 
by  showers  both  in  times  of  peace  and  of  war.  Dr.  H.  R.  Mill, 
director  of  the  British  Rainfall  Organization,  has  shown  the 
practical  impossibility  of  the  power  of  even  tremendous  gun- 
fire or  explosions,  to  affect  appreciably  the  almost  infinitely 
more  powerful  processes  of  the  atmosphere.  Computation  shows 
that  the  quantity  of  air  which  must  have  passed  over  England 
and  Wales  in  December,  1914,  exceeded  1,300  trillion  (million 
times  million)  tons.  "The  amount  of  force  required  even  to 
deviate  the  direction  of  moving  masses  of  this  magnitude  is 
surely  far  beyond  that  which  can  be  exerted  even  by  nations  at 
war."1  In  a  later  statement,2  Dr.  Mill  directs  attention,  among 

1  Mill,  H.  R.,  Quarterly  Journal,  Royal  Meteorological  Society,  October, 
1915. 

2  Symons's  Meteorological  Magazine,  February,   1918;   abstract  in  Geo- 
graphical Review,  January,  1919,  p.  51. 


PRECIPITATION  51 

other  points,  to  the  fact  that  much  emphasis  has  been  laid  on 
the  relative  wetness  of  1915  and  1916  in  southeastern  England: 
the  year  1917,  when  the  war  was  in  a  very  intense  phase,  had  a 
nearly  normal  rainfall.  Perhaps  the  final  blow  to  the  idea  that 
artillery  produces  rainfall  was  dealt  when  in  the  two  or  three 
weeks  following  the  beginning  of  the  great  German  drive  in 
March,  1918,  the  battlefield  in  France  was  practically  rainless. 
Surely  this  tremendous  artillery  battle  should  have  produced 
rain  if  rain  can  be  produced  in  this  way. 

These  processes — mixture,  radiation,  artillery  fire — can  at 
most  produce  but  slight  cooling  of  large  masses  of  air.  The 
considerable  cooling  of  great  masses  of  air  necessary  to  produce 
heavy  general  rainfall  can  be  brought  about  only  by  convection. 
This  was  discovered  only  50  years  ago.  Most  people  still  think 
that  it  rains  because  the  warm  lower  air  ascends  to  a  cold  region 
where  it  is  chilled  by  its  surroundings.  A  more  correct  con- 
ception is  that  rain  is  formed  because  the  warm  air  in  ascending 
necessarily  expands  and  in  so  doing  is  cooled  by  its  own  internal 
action,  resulting  in  the  loss  of  much  of  its  moisture ;  that  is,  the 
rain  is  the  result  largely  of  "convection."  If  a  cubic  meter  of 
air  saturated  at  15  degrees  Centigrade  were  raised  to  an  alti- 
tude of  1,000  meters,  the  resulting  cooling  would  precipitate 
about  2  grams,  ten  times  as  much  as  was  obtained  in  the  example 
of  the  effects  of  mixture  given  on  page  50.  The  elevation  of 
great  masses  of  air  to  several  times  1,000  meters  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  cyclones  and  thunderstorms.  Thus,  it  is  obvious 
that  mixture  and  radiation  are  to  be  considered  as  only  minor 
factors  in  the  production  of  rainfall,  the  principal  cause  being 
convection. 

Snow,  sleet,  and  rain  are  closely  related  forms  of  precipita- 
tion. Much  of  the  rain  that  reaches  the  earth  is  made  up  in 
part  at  least  of  moisture  originally  condensing  as  snow.  The 
precipitation  taking  place  in  clouds  at  temperatures  below 
freezing  seems  to  be  of  this  nature.  When  such  snow,  however, 
falls  into  air  whose  temperature  is  above  freezing,  it  melts  and 
becomes  rain.  If  the  melting  is  interrupted  by  the  entry  of  this 
partially  melted  snow  into  a  layer  of  air  with  a  temperature 
below  freezing, — as  is  not  infrequently  the  case  in  winter, — the 


52  WATER  RESOURCES 

partially  melted  snow  freezes  and  becomes  sleet.  The  form  of 
sleet  can  be  as  diverse  as  that  of  snow  in  all  stages  of  melting, 
from  the  hard,  white,  angular  pieces  of  ice,  to  nearly  spherical 
or  hemispherical  drops  of  ice  whose  only  indication  of  previous 
snow  condition  is  to  be  seen  in  the  minute  bubbles  included  in 
the  crystal. 

RAINFALL,  MEASUREMENTS.1  Our  conceptions  of  rainfall  and 
snowfall  have  been  obtained  mainly  from  tradition,  hence  we 
are  frequently  misled  by  erroneous  assumptions.  Everyone  is 
affected  in  his  business  or  pleasure  by  the  weather,  and  particu- 
larly by  the  excess  or  absence  of  precipitation.  We  remember 
the  unusual  occurrences  as  these  stand  out  prominently  in  our 
recollection  of  past  events.  Naturally  we  turn  to  the  oldest 
inhabitant  for  a  statement  as  to  what  are  the  prevailing  char- 
acteristics of  the  locality ;  he  narrates  the  conditions  which  have 
influenced  him  most  strongly.  Often  this  is  about  the  only 
source  of  information  available  concerning  the  rain-  or  snowfall 
during  the  past  generation  on  large  areas  of  sparsely  settled 
country  and  particularly  in  the  mountain  regions  where  it  is 
desirable  to  construct  reservoirs  for  conservation  of  water. 

For  engineering  purposes  it  is  now  appreciated  that  rela- 
tively little  reliance  should  be  placed  upon  the  recollections  of 
the  oldest  inhabitants.  While  these  are  in  a  general  way  indic- 
ative of  extremes,  yet  they  must  be  approached  with  a  ques- 
tioning attitude  because  of  the  fact  that  human  memory  with- 
out verification  is  quite  fallacious.  It  has  been  found  essential 
therefore,  in  order  to  obtain  reliable  data,  to  search  for  more 
definite  records  and  to  establish  at  the  earliest  practicable  date 
suitable  measuring  devices  for  ascertaining  the  amount  of  pre- 
cipitation and  the  time  of  its  occurrence. 

There  have  been  many  devices  employed  in  measuring  rain- 
fall or  snowfall,  some  of  them  quite  ancient  and  most  of  them 
very  simple.  The  one  most  commonly  employed  is  a  vessel  or 
pan  into  which  the  rain  falls;  the  depth  is  then  measured  di- 
rectly. It  is  obvious  that  the  sides  of  this  pan  should  be  vertical 
and  that  it  should  not  be  so  shallow  as  to  permit  the  rain  to 
splatter  out.  The  depth  of  water  obtained  in  this  way  may  be 

i  See  also  Monthly  Weather  Review,  May,  1919,  pp.  294-296. 


PRECIPITATION  53 

ascertained  by  direct  measurement  or  more  accurately  by  weigh- 
ing or  pouring  into  some  measuring  device.  For  ease  and 
accuracy  of  measuring,  however,  a  standard  rain  gage  has  been 
devised  in  which  the  open  pan,  usually  8  inches  in  diameter, 
instead  of  having  a  flat  bottom,  is  provided  with  a  conical- 
shaped  funnel  which  leads  into  a  tall  narrow  compartment  whose 
area  is  one-tenth  that  of  the  upper  rim  of  the  pan  or  collecting 
vessel.  Thus  the  depth  of  the  water  in  the  lower  compartment 
into  which  the  rain  flows  is  ten  times  that  of  the  equivalent 
amount  of  water  in  the  upper  portion.  The  depth  being  thus 
magnified  by  ten  can  be  readily  ascertained  to  one-hundredth  of 
an  inch.  The  point  to  be  emphasized  is  that  we  are  not  meas- 
uring the  rainfall  on  a  county  or  township  or  even  on  an  acre 
of  land  but  only  in  a  particular  vessel.  We  assume  that  this 
represents  a  large  area  but  this  is  only  an  assumption  made  for 
lack  of  better  ways  of  obtaining  the  needed  facts. 

It  is  obvious  from  the  nature  of  the  case  that  the  rain  gage 
is  not  an  instrument  of  precision.  For  measuring  rainfall  the 
device  is  fairly  effective,  but  in  giving  the  water  contents  of 
snowfall  great  inaccuracies  are  usually  involved.  To  obtain 
data  on  the  general  depth  of  rainfall  on  a  small  area,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  the  gage  so  placed  that : 

(1)  The  splash  from  the  ground  will  not  enter  it. 

(2)  The  drift  of  rain  off  other  objects  will  not  go  into  it. 

(3)  Other  objects  will  not  exclude  rain  from  it. 

(4)  Peculiar  wind  eddies  will  not  affect  the  catch. 

(5)  The  opening  of  the  gage  will  be  horizontal  and  there- 
fore represent  a  level  surface  of  ground. 

For  snowfall,  if  snow  has  fallen  during  a  wind,  the  way  to 
get  the  water  content  is  to  cut  an  average  cylinder,  or  several  of 
them,  out  of  the  snow-cover  and  measure  the  water  content 
either  directly  or  by  weighing.  When  snow  and  rain  fall 
together,  with  a  high  wind,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  find 
out  how  much  precipitation  occurred.  The  gage  will  catch  the 
rain  and  sleet  and  some  of  the  snow,  the  ground  will  retain  the 
snow,  but  perhaps  let  the  rain  go. 

IRREGULARITIES  IN  MEASUREMENT.  Rain  gages  placed  essen- 
tially side  by  side  may  give  readings  differing  by  5  per  cent  and 


54  WATER  RESOURCES 

when  only  a  few  hundred  feet  apart  by  more  than  10  per  cent 
in  annual  catch.  Thus,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  rainfall 
records  cannot  be  considered  as  accurate  to  the  nearest  hun- 
dredth of  an  inch,  even  though  stated  in  these  terms,  nor  even 
to  the  nearest  inch  if  annual  totals  are  considered.  Neverthe- 
less, we  must  accept  these  records  on  the  faith  that  they  are 
probably  right,  or  at  least  as  near  right  as  we  can  get  them. 

For  purposes  of  comparison,  it  is  essential  that  the  same 
period  of  years  be  used  and  that  conditions  of  exposure  of  the 
gages  be  essentially  the  same.  Rainfall  varies  so  much  from 
year  to  year  that  at  the  same  station  the  average  from  a  19-year 
period  may  differ  considerably  from  that  of  a  20-year  period. 

In  mapping  rainfall,  the  interpretation  of  the  results  on  the 
basis  of  the  known  effects  of  topography  on  rainfall  is  essential 
if  a  reliable  picture  of  the  distribution  of  rainfall  is  to  be  made. 
The  rainfall  lines  (isohyets)  should  be  drawrn  with  full  consid- 
eration of  the  influences  of  topography  but  without  in  any  way 
running  counter  to  the  indications  of  the  measured  records.1 

The  daily  and  annual  distribution  of  rainfall  may  be  peculiar 
in  certain  places  because  of  local  conditions.  For  large  regions 
there  may  be  large  departures  of  the  monthly  rainfall  from  the 
average  on  account  of  changes  in  the  positions  of  the  centers 
of  action,  or  because  of  long-continued  changes  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  water  surfaces  which  usually  supply  the  moisture. 

Torrential  rains  result  from  strong  convection  or  rising  of 
great  bodies  of  air.  In  thunderstorms  in  the  temperate  zone, 
there  may  be  more  rain  in  an  hour  than  is  possible  in  the  tropics 
where  there  may  be  more  moisture  available  for  precipitation 
but  where  the  processes  may  not  be  so  strong.  Dr.  O.  L.  Fassig 
(Monthly  Weather  Review,  June,  1916,  vol.  44,  329-336)  has 
found  that  it  can  rain  harder  at  Baltimore,  Maryland,  for  a 
short  time,  than  it  can  at  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico ;  but  that  tor- 
rential rains  can  continue  longer  at  San  Juan  than  at  Balti- 
more. The  heavy  rains  in  the  tropics  come  with  tropical 
cyclones.  Even  in  the  United  States  such  tropical  cyclones  may 
bring  much  rainfall.  On  September  28,  1917,  Robertsdale, 

i  See  "The  Preparation  of  Precipitation  Charts,"  Monthly  Weather  Re- 
view, 1917,  Vol.  45,  pp.  223-235. 


PRECIPITATION  55 

Ala.,  received  17.46  inches  in  a  day;1  and  on  July  14-15,  1916, 
Alta  Pass,  N.  C.,  in  the  southern  Appalachians  had  22.22 
inches  of  rainfall  in  twenty-four  hours.  In  the  Philippine 
Islands  at  Baguio  there  is  a  record  of  45.99  inches  in  twenty- 
four  hours  during  a  tropical  cyclone,  July  14-15,  1911. 
Destructive  floods  occur  under  such  conditions. 

The  cloudbursts  of  the  deserts,  and  even  of  the  more  humid 
parts  of  the  country,  are  truly  cloudbursts.  For  example,  a 
strong  desert  dust  whirl  may  rise  higher  and  higher  until  at 
perhaps  3,000-4,000  meters  a  cloud  begins  to  form.  With 
renewed  energy  from  the  latent  heat  of  condensation  in  the 
whirling,  rising  column,  the  cloud  grows.  Rain  begins  to  fall, 
but  a  large  proportion  is  held  in  the  cloud  by  the  air  rising 
faster  than  the  rain  can  fall,  viz.,  8  meters  per  second.  Some 
may  come  out  of  the  bottom  of  the  cloud  but  it  is  quickly 
evaporated  and  carried  up  for  condensation  again.  Finally, 
the  whirl  may  encounter  a  mountain  and  go  to  pieces:  down 
comes  all  at  once  the  rainfall  accumulated  during  some  hours. 
This  shows  why  it  can  rain  at  several  times  the  rate  at  which  the 
moisture  can  be  precipitated  in  the  rising  column  of  air. 

Not  only  is  the  rainfall  varying  in  quantity  from  minute  to 
minute,  but  at  the  same  moment  it  varies  in  rate  even  over 
a  single  square  mile.  It  is  no  uncommon  experience  to  drive 
along  the  country  and  find  a  portion  of  the  road  wet  from  recent 
rain  and  in  a  mile  or  two  another  stretch  of  road  comparatively 
dry.  It  may  rain  severely  in  one  ward  of  a  city,  flooding  the 
sewers,  and  other  wards  may  receive  merely  a  sprinkle.  Thus  we 
can  hardly  expect  that  any  two  rain  gages  which  are  not  within 
a  few  feet  of  each  other  will  receive  the  same  amount  of  rain. 
More  than  this,  we  find  by  observation  that  a  gage  placed  on 
the  ground  receives  a  larger  quantity  than  a  similar  gage 
exposed  on  top  of  a  building. 

It  was  formerly  assumed  that  more  rain  actually  fell  on  the 
ground  than  on  the  top  of  a  building,  but  it  is  now  generally 
conceded  that  the  difference  in  amount  received  by  the  gages  is 
due  principally  to  air  currents  which  blow  diagonally  into  or 

i  See  table  of  excessive  rainfalls  in  periods  of  about  a  day,  in  Monthly 
Weather  Review,  May,  1919,  Vol.  47,  p.  302. 


56  WATER  RESOURCES 

across  the  opening  of  the  gage.  Near  the  ground  the  air  cur- 
rents are  reduced  and  the  rainfall  is  more  nearly  normal.  In 
certain  measurements  made  by  the  Weather  Bureau,  it  is  shown 
that  a  gage  at  an  elevation  of  43  feet  received  75  per  cent  of 
rainfall,  at  85  feet  it  received  64  per  cent,  and  at  194  feet  above 
ground  the  gage  recorded  only  58  per  cent  of  the  amount  which 
fell  in  a  gage  placed  on  the  ground. 

In  interpreting  and  applying  the  results  of  measurement  of 
rainfall,  it  is  highly  important  to  ascertain  as  completely  as 
possible  the  position  of  the  gage  with  reference  to  its  height 
above  ground  and  particularly  as  to  the  shading  effect  of  build- 
ings, trees  or  other  obstructions  influencing  the  behavior  of  the 
wind.  Neglect  of  these  precautions  has  led  to  many  popular 
fallacies  and  occasionally  to  serious  blunders  in  planning  works. 

PERIODIC  FLUCTUATION.  In  studying  the  data  available  con- 
cerning precipitation  it  is  quickly  apparent  that  one  year  of 
relative  drought  may  be  followed  by  another  even  more  dry.  In 
the  course  of  a  few  years,  however,  there  is  always  a  return  to 
average  or  normal  conditions.  By  taking  a  long  range  of  obser- 
vations it  is  seen  that  there  is  occasionally  a  series  of  wet  years 
followed  by  a  series  of  dry  years.  These  are  sometimes  termed 
nonperiodic  fluctuations  because  of  the  fact  that  these  periods 
are  of  irregular  length. 

It  also  appears  from  a  study  of  the  records  that  each  year 
forms  a  new  combination  and  that  the  rainfall  in  time  of  occur- 
rence and  in  quantity  is  quite  different  from  that  of  any  other 
year.  The  average  for,  say,  five  years  or  ten  years  is  usually 
somewhat  above  or  below  that  of  the  preceding  or  succeeding 
similar  period.  If,  however,  the  observations  are  available  for, 
say,  fifty  years,  it  appears  as  though  most  of  the  ordinary  vaga- 
ries of  the  weather  had  been  exhausted ;  the  average  for  any  one 
fifty  years  is  approximately  the  same  as  that  for  a  similar 
period.  In  making  such  comparisons,  however,  it  must  be  re- 
called that  the  precision  of  the  observations  extending  over  any 
one  period  of  fifty  years  necessarily  differs  from  that  of  another 
fifty-year  period  because  of  changes  or  improvements  in  instru- 
ments, in  methods  and  in  surroundings  as  well  as  in  the  personnel 
of  the  observers. 


PRECIPITATION  57 

The  point  to  be  noted  is  that  observations  of  precipitation 
extending  throughout  five  years  or  even  ten  years  may  or  may 
not  be  representative  of  conditions  which  will  prevail  later.  If, 
however,  a  fifty-year  range  is  available,  then  considerable  con- 
fidence may  be  placed  upon  the  results  as  it  is  quite  probable 
the  the  extremes  of  drought  or  flood  have  been  experienced.  For 
lack  of  definite  data  it  is  customary  to  make  allowance  of  at 
least  20  per  cent  increase  in  the  extremes  of  drought  or  flood 
for  measurements  which  have  been  continued  for  five  years  and 
of  10  per  cent  for  measurements  over  a  period  of  ten  years. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  for  an  engineer  planning  works 
of  conservation  to  delay  for  ten  years  or  even  for  five  years  to 
obtain  data  on  precipitation  and  related  river  flow.  He  must 
utilize  the  figures  at  hand  and  make  allowance  on  the  side  of 
safety — keeping  in  mind  the  fact  that  fluctuation  does  occur, 
and  that  careful  study  should  be  made.  He  should  continually 
add  to  his  knowledge  of  the  changes  which  may  take  place  from 
day  to  day,  compiling  these  in  monthly  and  annual  totals  so 
that  on  the  basis  of  these  data  he  may  make  predictions,  within 
proper  limits,  of  the  conditions  which  the  works  of  water  stor- 
age may  be  called  upon  to  meet. 

In  making  such  predictions  it  is  important  to  bear  in  mind 
the  fluctuations  as  above  noted  and  to  consider  what  has  been 
the  general  trend  of  these  changes.  Taking  recent  geological 
observations,  there  has  been  no  doubt  a  marked  change  in  cli- 
matic conditions  since  the  glacial  period.  The  time  which  has 
elapsed  since  this  period  can  hardly  be  expressed  in  years,  but 
may  be  roughly  considered  as  extending  over  tens  of  thousands 
of  years  rather  than  a  lesser  number.  Man's  historic  period 
compared  to  this  is  short,  especially  that  of  recorded  data,  but 
it  is  possible  from  the  study  of  long-lived  vegetation  such  as  the 
giant  trees,  Sequoias,  to  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the  rain- 
fall fluctuations  during  the  past  few  hundred  years,  on  the 
whole,  have  not  been  much  greater  than  during  the  past  fifty 
years.  In  other  words,  trees  several  hundred  years  in  age  are 
found  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  a  study  of  whose  annual 
rings  of  growth  shows  that  the  rainfall  and  temperature  could 


58  WATER  RESOURCES 

not  have  been  greatly  different  from  those  which  now  prevail  in 
the  same  locality. 

Many  students  of  the  subject  have  attempted  to  deduce  some 
rule  covering  the  variations  in  precipitation  which  now  take 
place  and  to  connect  these  with  other  phenomena,  such  as  the 
intensity  of  the  sun's  radiant  heat  as  indicated  by  the  sun  spots. 
Some  have  arrived  at  a  cycle  of  seven  years,  others  at  eleven, 
and  Bruckner  at  thirty-five  years.1 

These  fluctuations  and  theories  concerning  them  are  interest- 
ingly described  by  Ellsworth  Huntington  in  his  book,  entitled, 
"Palestine  and  Its  Transformation."  He  there  brings  out  the 
various  hypotheses  of  the  progressive  changes  of  climate,  show- 
ing by  simple  diagrams  the  fundamental  deductions  from  the 
observed  facts.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  argued  that  there  is  a 
nearly  uniform  shrinkage  in  water  supply ;  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  urged  that  this  rate  of  change  varies  from  century  to  cen- 
tury. Much  of  the  data  has  been  obtained  from  a  study  of 
forest  growths  but  still  further  research  is  evidently  needed. 

The  conclusions  to  be  derived  from  these  various  discussions 
of  methods  and  results  of  rainfall  measurement  are  in  general 
that  climate  is  practically  fixed  so  far  as  it  is  of  concern  in 
preparing  the  usual  engineering  plans,  but,  to  determine  the 
range  of  the  weather  for  any  one  locality  and  accompanying 
phenomena  within  these  apparently  fixed  climatic  limits,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  observations  extending  over  possibly  fifty 
years  in  succession.  Experience  has  shown  that  in  any  period 
of  a  half  century,  practically  every  extreme  of  weather  may  be 
expiected  to  occur,  such  as  has  happened  in  the  previous  cen- 
tury or  which  may  properly  be  predicted  for  the  next  one  hun- 
dred years.  For  any  shorter  period,  for  example,  of  five  or  ten 
years,  the  averages  may  be  misleading  and  a  considerable  factor 
of  safety  should  be  added  to  cover  possible  contingencies. 

In  all  these  matters  additional  investigations  are  needed 
not  only  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  data  from  original  obser- 

i  Newell,  F.  H.,  "Water  Supply  for  Irrigation,"  13th  Annual  Report, 
U.  S.  G.  S.,  Part  III,  "Irrigation,"  p.  25. 

Bruckner,  Dr.  Edward,  "The  Settlement  of  the  United  States  as  Con- 
trolled by  Climate  and  Climatic  Oscillations,  in  Memorial  Volume  of  Trans- 
continental Excursion  of  1912,  of  American  Geographical  Society,"  p.  125. 


PRECIPITATION  59 

rations  but  more  than  this  in  connection  with  the  digesting  of 
the  array  of  facts  already  accumulated  which  are  only  partly 
interpreted. 

DEW  AND  FROST.  The  formation  of  dew  or  frost  occurs  when 
the  temperature  of  an  object  falls  below  the  dew-point  of  the  air 
immediately  in  contact  with  it  or  on  plants  when  exudation  of 
moisture  takes  place  more  rapidly  than  evaporation.  Dew  is 
highly  important  in  dry  countries,  for  there  it  may  be  the  only 
moisture  which  plants  and  animals  have  available  for  their  sup- 
port for  long  periods  of  time.  The  importance  of  frost  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  damage  done  by  the  low  temperatures.  Light 
air  movement  and  dry,  clear  air  at  night  favor  the  formation  of 
frost.  Light  air  movement  is  favorable  not  only  because  the 
objects  are  allowed  to  cool  to  a  temperature  appreciably  below 
the  air  temperature,  but  also  because  local  frosts  are  connected 
essentially  with  local  "air  drainage."  Soon  after  sunset,  cold 
and  dense  air,  cooled  chiefly  by  contact  writh  the  ground  and  to 
some  extent  by  radiation,  drains  slowly  down  the  slopes  into  the 
valleys  and  low  places.  Strong  winds  mix  the  air  and  thus  pre- 
vent the  occurrence  of  local  frosts.  Dry,  clear  air  aids  local 
frosts  because  the  dry  air  favors  rapid  radiation,  and  because 
the  latent  heat  of  condensation  which  accompanies  the  cooling 
of  moist  air  will  check  the  fall  in  temperature. 

For  convenience  in  frost  studies,  Alexander  McAdie  has  de- 
vised a  "saturation  deficit  recorder."  This  instrument  is  essen- 
tially a  hygrograph  mounted  on  the  pen  of  a  thermograph.  The 
thermograph  indicates  the  maximum  weight  of  water  vapor  pos- 
sible in  the  air  at  the  temperature  prevailing,  and  the  hygro- 
graph indicates  the  percentage  of  saturation.  Methods  of  pro- 
tection, distribution  of  killing  frosts,  and  dates  of  occurrence 
are  matters  chiefly  of  interest  to  agricultural  meteorologists.1 

SKY  SIGNS.  Farmers  and  mariners  know  the  sky  signs ;  but 
they  do  not  know  them  as  well  as  they  might  could  they  under- 

i  See  Frost  folio,  "Atlas  of  American  Agriculture,"  1918;  review,  Monthly 
Weather  Review,  November,  1918,  pp.  516-517,  and  Geographical  Review, 
May,  1919,  pp.  339-344;  articles  in  the  Monthly  Weather  Review  and  Geo- 
graphical Review  during  the  past  two  or  three  years. 


60  WATER  RESOURCES 

stand  the  processes  the  clouds  indicate.  Here  is  an  almost 
untouched  field  for  further  research  and  diffusion  of  informa- 
tion, which  is  attractive  not  only  because  it  is  interesting  and 
easily  accessible,  but  also  because  it  is  so  full  of  promise  for 
advances  in  local  weather  forecasts.  The  form  of  the  cloud 
generally  gives  some  clue  to  the  processes  by  which  it  is  being 
formed ;  its  movements  indicate  the  winds  by  which  it  is  carried, 
and  in  many  cases  show  the  relation  between  two  winds,  which 
may  be  indicative  of  further  condensation  and  subsequent  pre- 
cipitation. Thus  the  rapid  growth  of  cumulus  clouds  on  a 
warm  summer  day,  or  of  the  flatter  strato-cumulus  shortly  after 
sunrise  on  a  winter  day,  is  frequently  followed  in  a  few  hours 
by  showers  or  snow-flurries  which  may  or  may  not  reach  the 
earth. 

The  appearance  of  "rafts"  of  alto-cumulus  clouds,  with  a 
smooth,  basal  undulating  sheet,  obscured  here  and  there  by 
the  lower  parts  of  a  snow  curtain  falling  from  higher  level  of 
condensation,  or  even  by  streams  of  snow  falling  from  the  balls 
themselves,  indicates  strong  processes  of  convection  which  are 
likely  to  be  followed  by  precipitation  which  will  reach  the  earth's 
surface.  Similarly,  the  progressive  thickening  of  the  thin,  white, 
cirro-stratus  sheet,  hazily  mottled  here  and  there  with  cirro- 
cumulus  balls,  into  alto-stratus  and  alto-cumulus  is  likely  to  be 
followed  by  rainfall  when  the  cloud  has  thickened  still  further. 
Stratus  clouds  and  low,  indefinite  sheets  of  early  morning 
strato-cumulus  clouds  are  generally  not  indicative  of  processes 
which  will  produce  rainfall.  They  are  likely  to  break  away  in 
the  warmer  hours  of  the  day. 

FORESTS  AND  MOUNTAINS.  The  kind  of  civilization  of  a 
country  is  shown  by  the  way  in  which  its  forests  are  given  care 
and  attention.  Much  of  the  prosperity,  health  and  comfort  of 
future  generations  lies  in  the  present  effective  protection  of 
forest  growth.  The  degree  to  which  thought  is  now  being  given 
to  the  needs  of  those  who  come  after  us  measures  our  own 
growth  in  the  scale  of  civilization.  In  considering  reconstruc- 
tion or  conservation  problems,  the  forests  have  peculiar  interest, 
not  merely  from  the  standpoint  of  immediate  use,  but  more  than 
this,  from  their  peculiar  relation  to  future  generations  of  men 


PRECIPITATION  61 

and  as  to  our  attitude  in  perpetuating  and  handing  on  to  others 
in  even  better  condition  the  good  things  which  we  now  enjoy. 

The  primitive  man  is  concerned  with  his  immediate  daily 
needs  and  seldom  attempts  crop  production.  As  he  comes  up  in 
the  scale  his  vision  increases  and  he  plants  the  rapidly  growing 
corn.  Later  in  a  semicivilized  state  he  protects  or  adds  to  the 
fruit  and  nut  trees  which  may  not  come  into  bearing  for  sev- 
eral years ;  but  it  is  only  when  mankind  attains  a  high  degree 
of  altruistic  ideals  that  he  plants  or  guards  forests  and  similar 
resources,  knowing  that  a  crop  can  be  had  perhaps  only  once  in 
a  lifetime  or  that  the  full  value  will  be  received  by  his  grand- 
children or  by  those  who  take  their  places. 

Hydro-economics,  so  far  at  least  as  it  is  concerned  with  the 
conservation  and  use  of  water,  is  intimately  related  to  for- 
estry, with  the  care,  preservation  and  enlargement  of  forest 
growth,  especially  in  the  mountains  and  in  areas  where  the  soil 
has  little  value  for  the  production  of  other  crops.  It  may  be 
said  that  the  earliest  and  strongest  supporters  of  a  national  or 
state  policy  are  the  engineers  and  men  of  vision  who  see  in  the 
protection  and  use  of  the  forests  the  best  guarantee  for  the 
continued  enjoyment  of  certain  uses  of  water.  The  most  nota- 
ble example  is  that  of  the  conservationists — or  hydro-econo- 
mists— who  urged  action  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States 
in  setting  aside  for  forest  protection  great  areas  of  public  land 
with  the  object  not  only  of  furnishing  a  supply  of  timber,  but 
of  affording  protection  to  the  headwaters  of  important  western 
streams. 

This  achievement,  with  reference  to  the  public  lands,  has  been 
supplemented  by  activities  leading  to  direct  Congressional 
appropriations  for  purchasing  large  tracts  of  privately  owned 
forest  land  in  the  White  Mountain  and  Appalachian  region  in 
the  eastern  and  southern  portions  of  the  United  States,  where 
there  wrere  no  public  lands,  but  wrhere  it  was  believed  that  the 
public  interest  demanded  that  forest  growth  be  perpetuated. 
The  latter  action  was  taken  in  accordance  with  the  authority 
granted  to  Congress  by  the  Constitution,  which  gives  to  the 
United  States  the  control  over  commerce  and  of  navigable 
streams.  The  forest  lands  have  been  purchased  under  the 


62  WATER  RESOURCES 

theory  that  the  maintenance  of  navigation  can  be  better  assured 
by  the  protection  of  the  woodland  cover  and  consequently 
assumed  reduction  of  erosion  of  the  soil  and  of  filling  up  of  the 
navigable  channels. 

Not  only  has  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  taken  an 
interest  in  the  forests  and  in  their  protection,  as  part  of  its  duty 
to  the  public,  but  also  the  individual  states  and  even  munici- 
palities have  made  forest  reserves,  some  antedating  the  action 
of  Congress.  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  other  common- 
wealths have  their  state  forests,  designed  not  merely  as  pleas- 
ure grounds  or  breathing  spots  for  the  people  and  for  the  pro- 
tection of  bird  life  and  wild  game,  but  also  to  aid  in  the  more 
effective  control  and  use  of  water  resources  in  the  many  ways 
of  municipal  supply,  irrigation,  power  development  and  soil 
protection. 

One  of  the  most  important  questions  in  connection  with  water 
conservation  by  storage  of  floods  is  the  influence  of  mountains 
and  forests  upon  the  quantity  of  water  which  may  be  available. 
In  discussing  the  occurrence  of  water  it  has  been  noted  from 
the  earliest  times  that  the  inequality  of  the  earth's  surface  has 
a  great  influence  upon  the  precipitation  of  water  from  the 
atmosphere.  There  is  unquestionably  a  close  relation  between 
mountains  and  rainfall.1  Whatever  the  explanation  may  be  it 
is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  precipitation  is  usually  greater 
upon  mountains  and  usually  increases  in  depth  as  the  mountain 
is  ascended.2 

As  a  consequence  of  the  relatively  heavy  precipitation  on  the 
mountain  slope  there  is  usually  a  dense  growth  of  vegetation — 
the  upper  limit  being  set,  in  the  case  of  high  mountains,  by  the 
extremely  cold  and  desiccating  winds  of  the  upper  atmosphere 
into  which  the  summit  rises.  The  fact  that  forests  do  occur 
upon  mountains  even  in  arid  regions  has  been  used  as  the  basis 
of  an  argument  to  the  effect  that  forests  increase  the  precipita- 

1  See   "Atlas   of   American   Agriculture,"    Part    II,    "Climate,"    Advance 
sheet   1,  average  annual   rainfall  of  the   United   States,   reproduced,   with 
discussion  by  R.  DeC.  Ward,  Monthly  Weather  Review,  July,  1917,  Vol.  45, 
pp.  338-345. 

2  See  Henry,  A.  J.,  "Increase  of  Precipitation  with  Altitude,"  Monthly 
Weather  Review,  January,  1919,  Vol.  47,  pp.  33-41. 


PRECIPITATION  63 

tion.  Careful  investigations  have  been  made  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,  particularly  in  Europe  and  in  India,  but  the  con- 
clusions are  rather  negative  in  character,  the  general  opinion 
being  that  while  there  may  be  a  somewhat  greater  precipita- 
tion in  the  forests  than  on  a  similarly  situated  open  area,  yet 
the  difference  is  so  slight  that  it  may  be  due  to  errors  in 
observation.1 

Whether  or  not  the  presence  of  forests  induces  a  larger  pre- 
cipitation, there  is  little  doubt  that  the  forests  as  a  rule 
tend  to  conserve  the  water  which  does  reach  the  ground.  They 
render  the  condition  of  water  storage  far  more  satisfactory 
than  would  be  the  case  if  the  mountain  slope  were  denuded  of 
tree  growth.  So  strong  is  this  belief  that,  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  United  States  in  the  Appalachian  region  of  the  south  and 
the  White  Mountain  region  of  the  north,  the  United  States,  as 
above  noted,  is  purchasing  large  tracts  of  forest  lands  at  the 
headwaters  of  important  navigable  rivers  with  a  view  to  pro- 
tecting these  forests  and  maintaining  them  in  good  condition 
because  of  the  direct  or  indirect  beneficial  influence  upon  the 
stream  flow.  These  effects  come  in  part  by  actual  conservation 
of  water  in  the  soil  and  among  the  roots  of  the  trees,  but  more 
largely  by  the  prevention  of  rapid  erosion  and  by  reducing  the 
washing  of  the  soil  from  the  mountain  slopes  into  the  natural 
lakes  or  artificial  reservoirs  and  into  the  stream  channels.  The 
soil  thus  eroded  becomes  not  only  lost  to  the  country  from  which 
it  is  removed,  but  more  than  this  is  a  distinct  injury  in  filling 
up  reservoirs  and  in  forming  shoals  in  the  navigable  waters. 

Throughout  the  arid  west  nearly  every  community  in  which 
irrigation  is  practiced  is  asking  that  the  forests  at  the  head- 
waters of  the  streams  be  .more  completely  protected.  To  this 
end  it  is  urged  that  the  grazing  of  cattle  and  sheep  be  so  regu- 
lated as  to  prevent  the  close  cropping  of  the  herbage  or  over- 
grazing to  an  extent  such  that  the  smaller  plants  are  destroyed. 

i  For  many  years  rainfall  and  other  meteorological  observations  have 
been  made  in  the  forests  in  the  vicinity  of  Wagon  Wheel  Gap,  Colo.,  on 
slopes  similarly  exposed.  Now  one  slope  is  soon  to  be  deforested,  and  the 
observations  continued  as  before.  At  the  end  of  this  experiment  the  results 
may  settle  at  least  some  of  the  controversy  concerning  the  effects  of  forests 
on  rainfall. 


64  WATER  RESOURCES 

It  has  been  shown  by  practical  experience  that  such  regulation 
can  be  effected  and  that  instead  of  reducing  the  number  of  sheep 
which  can  be  fed  upon  a  given  area,  it  is  possible  with  sensible 
management  gradually  to  increase  the  number  and  at  the  same 
time  afford  needed  protection  to  the  soil. 

The  conditions  which  exist  in  the  state  of  nature  are  well  illus- 
trated by  PI.  XVII.  C,  showing  in  the  foreground  one  of  the  nat- 
ural lakes  such  as  are  to  be  found  in  the  mountain  valleys  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  timber-covered  slopes.  The  particular 
view  is  of  Keechelus  Lake,  one  of  the  several  bodies  of  water  at 
the  head  of  Yakima  River  in  the  Cascade  Mountains  of  the  state 
of  Washington.  This  and  other  lakes  have  been  converted  into 
reservoirs  by  building  earth  dams  at  the  outlets,  as  stated  on 
page  166.  In  this  case  the  wooded  slopes  have  been  included  in 
the  national  forests  to  be  maintained  indefinitely,  not  only 
because  of  the  value  of  the  timber  to  be  had  from  time  to  time, 
but  because  of  the  beneficial  effect  upon  the  reservoirs,  notably 
by  the  prevention  of  erosion  of  the  hillsides. 

Many  problems  of  immediate  importance  in  the  prosperity  of 
large  communities  are  presented  by  the  phenomena  of  forest 
growth  and  methods  of  maintenance.  Additional  research  is 
needed,  particularly  into  the  economics  of  the  handling  of 
forest  products  and  into  the  relation  which  public  health  and 
comfort  bear  to  the  forests  as  recreation  grounds  as  well  as 
into  their  influence  upon  water  supply. 

The  whole  subject  of  relation  of  forests  to  run-off  has  been 
discussed  from  time  to  time  by  various  engineers  and  students, 
the  most  notable  contribution  to  the  subject  being  that  by  the 
late  General  Chittenden,  who  brought  together  a  concise  state- 
ment of  our  present  state  of  knowledge  of  the  subject.1 

i  Chittenden,  Hiram  N.,  "Forest  and  Stream  Flow,"  Transactions  of 
A.  8.  C.  E.,  Vol.  62,  p.  245. 


CHAPTER  IV 
EVAPORATION 

A  force  is  at  work  day  and  night,  summer  and  winter,  stead- 
ily robbing  water  from  lakes,  streams,  trees,  animals,  and  all 
objects  which  contain  it.  A  study  of  this  activity  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  its  results  are  fundamental  in  most  of  the  construction 
problems  which  are  concerned  with  hydro-economics.  Man's 
ability  to  use  water  in  all  of  its  varied  forms  and  applications 
is  confined  largely  to  that  portion  of  it  which  is  left  after 
evaporation  has  taken  its  full  share.  This  is  a  conception  to 
which  full  weight  has  not  been  given  in  many  scientific  discus- 
sions. We  have  recognized,  of  course,  that  there  is  such  a  thing 
as  evaporation,  but  its  powerful  and  far-reaching  influences 
have  not  been  fully  appreciated  nor  the  fact  that  we  can  enjoy 
the  use  of  only  such  water  as  nature  may  condescend  to  leave 
after  her  toll  has  been  taken. 

Evaporation  is  in  many  ways  the  counterpart  of  precipita- 
tion. While,  on  the  one  hand,  nature  is  intermittently  pouring 
down  water  from  the  clouds  or  is  furnishing  it  imperceptibly  in 
the  form  of  vapor,  at  the  same  time  there  is  being  withdrawn  in 
every  direction  a  steady  flow  of  water  back  to  the  air.  We  have 
here  a  powerful  force  influencing  human,  animal  and  vegetable 
activities  and  one  which  may  be  converted  into  a  beneficial  ser- 
vant in  many  industries.  That  is  to  say,  evaporation,  while 
robbing  us  of  water  which  might  be  usefully  employed,  at  the 
same  time  is  performing  innumerable  necessary  operations,  since 
all  the  functions  of  life  depend  upon  it.  Additional  benefits  may 
be  had  when  widely  employed  by  artificial  application,  such,  for 
example,  as  in  the  drying  and  preserving  of  fruits,  vegetables, 
and  other  food  materials.  In  many  so-called  practical  ways, 
we  have  the  problem  of  controlling  evaporation  and  turning  its 
activity  to  economic  ends  in  promoting  commerce  and  industry. 


66  WATER  RESOURCES 

As  soon  as  the  rain  strikes  the  earth,  a  portion  of  the  moisture 
at  once  returns  to  the  air.  The  quantity  which  thus  disappears 
at  any  moment  may  be  small  but,  being  continuous  even  during 
the  rainstorm  itself,  the  total  loss  amounts  to  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  rain  which  descends.  Even  from  snow  or  ice  there 
is  usually  a  small  loss  as  the  atmosphere  is  greedily  absorbing 
moisture  from  all  objects  containing  water.  The  only  exception 
is  when  the  air  is  completely  saturated ;  but  this  seldom  occurs ; 
during  the  prevalence  of  a  storm  the  layer  of  air  near  the  earth 
may  be  taking  up  water  while  the  oversaturated  higher  layers 
of  the  atmosphere  are  giving  it  out.1  In  dry  climates  such  as 
those  of  the  western  part  of  the  United  States  evaporation  is 
very  active,  drinking  up  the  waters  of  the  rivers  to  an  extent 
such  that  many  of  them  are  overcome  by  the  thirsty  air  and  are 
never  able  to  reach  the  ocean. 

In  all  estimates  of  water  available  for  storage  or  for  use  by 
plants  or  animals  we  must  first  make  allowance  for  the  quantity 
which  is  demanded  by  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  This  simple 
fact  has  not  always  been  appreciated,  namely,  that  the  run-off 
or  quantity  of  water  available  is  the  residual  after  evaporation 
has  taken  its  toll  from  the  rainfall.  For  many  years  engineers 
have  tried  to  arrive  at  a  ratio  between  the  amount  of  water  that 
falls  in  the  form  of  rain  and  snow  and  the  quantity  which  runs 
off  the  surface.  They  have  assumed,  say,  that  30  per  cent  of 
the  total  rainfall  flows  off  the  land  in  the  New  England  states, 
and  from  this  down  to  3  per  cent  or  even  less  in  the  arid  regions. 
There  can  be  no  fixed  relation  of  this  kind  because  the  quan- 
tity evaporated  has  no  direct  dependence  upon  the  quantity 
precipitated. 

The  condition  of  the  ground  governs  largely  the  amount  of 
water  which  returns  to  the  air  by  evaporation.  If  the  surface 
is  open  and  porous  or  covered  with  grass  or  other  vegetation, 
the  rainfall  is  enabled  to  run  in  or  soak  the  ground  and  saturate 
the  subsoil.  If,  however,  such  a  surface  is  packed  hard  and  the 
vegetation  eaten  down  or  destroyed,  for  example,  by  bands  of 
sheep  as  shown  in  PI.  IX.  A,  then  the  water  is  prevented  from 

i  Monthly  Weather  Review,  March,  1910,  Vol.  38,  p.  1133. 


EVAPORATION  67 

running  in  and,  on  the  contrary,  runs  rapidly  off  the  surface, 
causing  sharp,  sudden  floods  which  carry  away  much  of  the 
finer  soil.  The  losses  by  evaporation  under  these  conditions,  it 
is  true,  are  reduced,  but  at  the  same  time  the  destructive  run- 
off is  increased. 

From  all  moist  surfaces  molecules  of  water,  particularly 
those  which  have  the  greatest  energy,  or  heat,  are  continually 
escaping.  This  loss  tends  to  lower  the  average  temperature  of 
the  water  particles  which  remain,  or  as  more  commonly  stated, 
heat  is  consumed  in  this  process.  The  rate  at  which  evapora- 
tion will  take  place  depends  on  the  difference  between  the  vapor 
pressure  of  the  moist  surface  and  that  of  the  air  immediately  in 
contact  with  it,  also  on  the  atmospheric  pressure.  Wind  be- 
comes a  factor  in  that  it  maintains  at  a  maximum  for  the  gen- 
eral masses  of  air  the  differences  between  the  vapor  pressure  of 
the  wrater  surface  and  that  of  the  air.  Sunlight  tends  to  increase 
evaporation  by  supplying  sufficient  energy  to  the  water  surface 
to  maintain  evaporation,  and  at  the  same  time  even  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  evaporating  surface.  The  relative  humidity 
of  the  air  has  little  direct  influence  on  the  rate  of  evaporation — 
as  is  well  illustrated  by  the  way  in  which  a  warm,  moist  surface 
can  throw  into  the  air  much  more  moisture  than  that  which  the 
temperature  of  the  air  will  allow  to  remain  in  the  vapor  state. 
The  kettle  throws  out  steam  because  the  vapor  pressure  of  the 
water  in  it  exceeds  that  at  which  the  vapor  in  the  air  can  be 
saturated. 

The  amount  of  evaporation  which  will  occur  from  the  surface 
of  a  reservoir,  for  instance,  is  a  complex  function  not  only  of  the 
atmospheric  pressure,  vapor  pressures  of  the  air  and  water  sur- 
face, and  wind  velocity,  but  also  of  the  area  of  reservoir  and  the 
roughness  of  its  surface.  Various  formulas  have  been  devised  to 
express  these  relations,  but  it  is  evident  that  there  is  still  much 
to  be  done  in  observing  the  elements  of  evaporation  before  we 
can  apply  these  general  conclusions  in  such  way  as  to  estimate 
accurately  the  amount  of  loss  which  may  take  place  from  any 
kind  of  a  moist  surface.  Maps  showing  the  evaporation  losses 
from  large  areas  of  land  or  water  have  not  yet  been  drawn  with 
any  considerable  degree  of  precision  as  comparable  data  are 


68  WATER  RESOURCES 

lacking.  (See  B.  E.  Livingston's  isoatmic  map  of  the  United 
States,  "Plant  World,"  1911,  Vol.  14,  and  article,  pp.  205- 
222.) 

The  total  evaporation  of  the  world  is  of  some  interest.  Since 
the  ocean  covers  three- fourths  of  the  globe  it  is  the  surface  from 
which  most  of  the  evaporation  in  the  atmosphere  takes  place. 
W.  Schmidt  (Bulletin  American  Geographical  Society,  1915, 
p.  695)  has  computed  the  mean  daily  evaporation  of  oceanic 
waters  to  be  2.07  millimeters  (0.08  inch)  or  27  inches  per 
year.  About  11  per  cent  (net)  of  this  water  vapor  probably 
goes  over  the  land.  The  rainfall  over  the  oceans  is  estimated  to 
be  the  equivalent  of  only  about  90  per  cent  of  the  evaporation, 
a  depth  of  69  centimeters  (27  inches)  annually.  The  average 
over  the  lands  is  probably  92  centimeters  (36  inches),  of  which 
only  about  a  tenth  is  from  the  precipitation  of  water  evaporated 
first  hand  from  the  ocean.  This  seems  reasonable  when  it  is 
remembered  that  the  run-off  in  streams  is  generally  less  than  a 
quarter  of  the  rainfall.  On  the  average,  it  seems  that  the  flow 
of  the  Mississippi  by  St.  Louis  is  no  greater  than  the  total 
amount  of  water  falling  as  rain  on  the  state  of  Missouri.  Thus 
it  seems  direct  evaporation  from  the  oceans  supplies  the  mois- 
ture for  about  three-fourths  of  the  world's  rainfall,  while  that 
from  the  lands  and  inland  waters  supplies  the  other  fourth. 

As  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  the  sole  original  source  of  water 
vapor  in  the  atmosphere,  the  decrease  with  altitude  is  naturally 
a  little  greater  in  the  free  air  than  on  mountains.  Roughly, 
at  an  altitude  of  2  kilometers,  or  over  a  mile,  the  content  is  half 
of  that  at  sea  level ;  at  3  kilometers,  or  nearly  2  miles,  it  is  one- 
quarter  (on  mountains,  one-third)  ;  and  at  8  kilometers,  or  5 
miles,  1  per  cent  of  the  sea  level  content.  Under  usual  condi- 
tions in  middle  latitudes,  a  mountain  range  but  2  kilometers,  or 
over  6,000  feet,  high  will  allow  only  half  of  the  water  vapor  to 
pass  over;  the  rest  is  precipitated.  In  general,  the  absolute 
humidity  over  deserts  is  but  slightly  lower  than  that  over  other 
regions,  even  though  the  relative  humidity  is  only  from  25  to  50 
per  cent.  There  is  enough  moisture  in  the  air  to  make  appre- 
ciable rainfall,  but  it  takes  extraordinary  atmospheric  action  to 
precipitate  it.  Rain  makers,  or  rather  the  people  who  hire  them, 


EVAPORATION  69 

seem  to  fail  to  realize  the  tremendous  amount  of  power  required 
to  cause  such  precipitation  in  the  arid  and  semiarid  regions. 

EVAPORATION  MEASUREMENTS.  Losses  in  volume  or  weight 
of  a  certain  mass  of  water  may  be  measured  directly  or  the 
evaporation  estimated  by  noting  the  rate  of  cooling.  The 
instruments  devised  for  this  purpose  are  generally  known  as 
evaporimeters  or  "atmometers"  from  the  Greek  word  atmos 
meaning  steam  or  vapor.  The  kind  of  atmometer  depends  upon 
the  purpose  for  which  measurements  are  being  made.  Thus,  the 
engineer  uses  an  open  pan  atmometer  while  the  student  of  plant 
life  wants  a  porous  cup  or  some  other  device  more  nearly  imitat- 
ing the  action  of  the  bodies  whose  evaporation  losses  he  desires 
to  obtain.1 

The  open  pan  atmometer  filled  with  water  may  be  set  up  on 
land  or  may  be  made  to  float  on  a  reservoir  or  lake  surface.  The 
water  losses  from  damp  soil  or  plants  may  be  obtained  by 
employing  pans  or  pots  of  such  form  that  they  can  be  filled 
with  soil  and  then  weighed  from  time  to  time  to  ascertain  the 
amount  of  water  which  is  received  from  the  rain  or  other  sources 
and  the  loss  which  takes  place  by  evaporation  or  by  transpira- 
tion from  the  plants  which  are  cultivated  in  the  soil  contained 
in  the  pots. 

For  purposes  of  water  conservation,  especially  in  preparing 
plans  and  estimates  for  storage  works,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
some  approximation  of  the  quantity  of  water  which  escapes 
from  the  surface  of  the  proposed  artificial  lake.  It  is  known 
that  the  evaporation  increases  with  the  rise  in  temperature  and 
with  the  wind  movement;  hence  observations  are  made  of  these 
factors. 

Various  efforts  have  been  made  to  measure  the  depth  of 
evaporation  directly  from  pans  so  arranged  as  to  float  in  the 
water — these  being  maintained  at  the  same  temperature  as  that 
on  the  surface  of  the  pond  or  lake.  Accurate  measurements 
of  the  amount  evaporated  from  a  pan  are  not  easily  obtainable 
because  of  the  many  accidents  to  which  an  apparatus  thus 
exposed  may  be  liable.  The  effect  of  the  rim  of  the  pan,  even 

i  See  "A  New  Evaporimeter  for  Use  in  Forest  Studies,"  by  C.  G.  Bates, 
Monthly  Weather  Review,  May,  1919,  Vol.  47,  pp.  283-294. 


70  WATER  RESOURCES 

though  projecting  only  an  inch  or  two  above  the  surface,  is 
quite  appreciable. 

The  United  States  Weather  Bureau  has  carried  on  investi- 
gations of  evaporation  losses,  particularly  in  various  parts  of 
the  West.  In  one  series  of  experiments  they  floated  shallow  pans 
not  only  upon  the  surface  of  the  water,  but  placed  them  on  the 
ground  and  on  towers  so  arranged  that  the  pans  would  be  at 
different  heights  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  or  of  the  lake 
itself.  A  view  of  one  of  these  towers  on  Salton  Sea  in  southern 
California  is  given  in  PL  III.  A,  and  a  more  distant  view  of  the 
sea  itself  in  PL  III.  B.  Among  other  facts  it  has  been  appar- 
ently demonstrated  that  a  large  body  of  water  loses  in  depth 
only  about  0.7  of  that  from  a  pan  floating  on  the  surface.1 

STANDARD  GAGE.  As  a  result  of  these  investigations  the 
effort  to  make  measurements  of  evaporation  from  the  surface  of 
pans  floating  in  a  reservoir  or  lake  has  been  practically  aban- 
doned. The  difficulties  and  uncertainties  involved  were  found 
to  be  too  great.  The  Weather  Bureau  has  now  adopted  a 
standard  type  of  apparatus  as  shown  in  PL  III.  C.2  The  stand- 
ard evaporation  pan  is  made  of  galvanized  iron,  cylindrical  in 
form,  48  inches  in  diameter  and  10  inches  deep.  It  is  supported 
on  a  wooden  base  placed  on  the  ground  and  surrounded  by  a 
woven  wire  fence  5  feet  high.  Inside  the  enclosure  beside  the  pan 
is  a  rain  gage  and  a  small  standard  instrument,  sheltered,  con- 
taining thermometers.  There  is  also  provided  an  anemometer, 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  large  pan  so  as  to  obtain  the 
wind  movement  across  the  water  surface. 

Careful  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  proper  exposure  of 
the  apparatus  so  that  the  locality  will  be  open  to  the  sunshine 
and  be  representative  of  the  weather  conditions  of  the  region. 
The  height  of  the  water  in  the  pan  is  observed  at  7  a.m.  and 
7  p.m.,  at  which  time  readings  of  the  other  instruments  are 

1  Bigelow,   F.   H.,  Monthly    Weather   Review,   February,   1909,   Vol.   37, 
p.  307. 

2  Report  of  Chief  of  Weather  Bureau,  1914-15,  p.  13;  also,  "Instructions 
for  the  Installation  and  Operation  of  Class  A  Evaporation  Stations,"  Octo- 
ber 16,  1915,  United  States  Weather  Bureau;  also,  "Current  Evaporation 
Observations,"  in  Monthly   Weather  Review,  December,  1916,  Vol.  44,  pp. 
647-677,  illustrated. 


Plate  III.  A. 

Tower  of  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  carrying  evaporation  pans,  near 
Salton  Sea,  California. 


Plate  III.   B. 

Towers  in  Salton  Sea,  California,  supporting  evaporation  pans;  view 
looking  west,  Salt  Creek  bridges  in  foreground;  Towers  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4 
in  Salton  Sea. 


Plate  III.   C. 
Standard  Evaporation  Station,  United  States  Weather  Bureau. 


EVAPORATION  71 

taken.  The  pan  is  filled  with  water  to  within  two  inches  of  the 
top  and  refilled  when  the  water  has  receded  one  inch. 

The  total  amount  of  evaporation  from  a  reservoir  or  other 
free  water  surface  is  greatest  during  the  hot  months  of  the  year 
and  least  in  winter.  During  July,  August,  and  September,  if 
there  is  any  considerable  wind  movement,  the  evaporation  may 
be  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  nearly  half  an  inch  a  day,  while 
during  the  prevalence  of  cold,  still  weather  in  winter  the  depth 
of  evaporation  from  the  water  or  frozen  surface  may  be  one- 
hundredth  of  an  inch.  The  total  for  the  year  in  northern 
climates  may  be  stated  in  round  numbers  as  from  3  to  4  feet 
in  depth,  while  in  the  southern  part  of  arid  regions  of  the  United 
States  the  annual  evaporation  may  be  7  to  8  feet  or  more. 

In  estimates  of  loss  from  artificial  lakes  or  storage  reservoirs 
it  is  necessary  to  give  consideration  mainly  to  the  depth  of 
evaporation  during  the  early  summer  as  the  storage  is  prin- 
cipally at  that  time.  That  is  to  say,  the  reservoir  is  filled 
during  May  and  June ;  early  in  July  the  greatest  area  is  usually 
exposed  to  evaporation.  During  the  succeeding  months  the 
water  is  drawn  down,  the  surface  area  consequently  reduced  and 
the  losses  become  relatively  insignificant.  Thus  it  is  not  as 
important  to  consider  the  annual  losses  as  it  is  to  ascertain  the 
evaporation  which  takes  place  during  the  time  from  the  filling 
of  the  reservoir  to  the  date  when  the  surface  is  drawn  down  to 
its  minimum  area. 

RESULTS.  Compilations  of  various  measurements  have  been 
prepared  as  noted  in  one  of  the  reports  on  "Water  Resources 
of  Illinois."1  As  then  compiled  by  A.  H.  Horton,  who  has  freely 
interpolated  figures  for  missing  months,  the  total  evaporation 
at  different  points  in  the  United  States  is  as  given  on  page  72. 

The  evaporation  from  the  pans  placed  directly  on  the  ground 
is  undoubtedly  larger  than  from  pans  which  are  floating  on  the 
surface  of  the  lake  or  reservoir.  The  figures  obtained  as  given 
above  are  not  truly  representative  of  what  is  taking  place  from 
the  free  surface  of  water  in  a  reservoir.  Nevertheless,  these 
have  some  value,  especially  as  they  are  practically  the  only 

i  Horton,  A.  H.,  "Water  Resources  of  Illinois,"  Report  of  Rivers  and 
Lakes  Commission  of  Illinois,  1914,  Part  III,  pp.  306-316. 


72  WATER  RESOURCES 

available  data.  Their  principal  use  is  perhaps  in  connection 
with  a  comparison  of  amount  evaporated  by  months,  the  per- 
centage for  Chestnut  Hill  Reservoir,  Mass.,  noted  above,  being 
as  follows : 

Jan.     Feb.    Mar.     Apr.     May    June    July     Aug.     Sept.     Oct.     Nov.     Dec. 
2.4       2.7       4.3         7.6       11.4       14.2      15.2      14.0       10.4       8.1         5.7       3.9 

There  is  need  of  further  research,  not  only  in  these  losses  but 
particularly  into  the  ways  or  degree  in  which  evaporation  may 
be  checked  or  reduced  by  tree  planting  or  other  devices  for 
reducing  wind  movement  and  maintaining  a  lower  temperature 
of  the  water  surface. 

ESTIMATED  ANNUAL  EVAPORATION 

DEPTH  OF  EVAPORATION 
LOCALITY  DIAMETER  OF  PAN  IN  INCHES 

Columbus,  Ohio  4'  floating  46 

Birmingham,  Ala.  4'  floating  51 

Chestnut  Hill,  Mass.  4'  floating  39 

Rochester,  N.  Y.  4'  floating  35 

Dutch  Flats,  Neb.  4'  ground  66 

Deer  Flat,  Idaho  3'  ground  79 

North  Yakima,  Wash.  4'  ground  68 

Hermiston,  Ore.  3'  ground  68 

Ady,  Ore.  4'  floating  53 

Brawley,  Calif.  6'  ground  104 

Mammoth,  Calif.  6'  ground  126 

Granite  Reef,  Ariz.  4'  ground  115 

DRYING  OR  DEHYDRATION.  Closely  connected  with,  or  grow- 
ing out  from,  the  studies  of  evaporation  are  certain  practical 
applications  of  the  resulting  facts  in  the  drying  of  bulky  articles 
such  as  green  wood  or  other  raw  materials  and  foods,  in 
order  to  facilitate  their  transportation  and  storage.  For 
example,  in  the  case  of  wood,  a  large  part  of  the  weight  of 
boards  or  timber  used  in  construction  is  water.  Months  or 
years  are  usually  required  for  drying  or  seasoning  from  the 
date  the  timber  is  cut  to  the  time  when  it  can  be  economically 
transported  or  utilized.  It  is  obvious  that  great  gains  will 
come  from  developing  ways  for  shortening  this  time  of  drying 
and  for  putting  the  material  into  form  for  use.  Moreover,  the 
process  of  drying  out  the  wood  frequently  changes  its  shape, 
spoiling  it  for  many  operations.  Recent  investigations  have 


EVAPORATION  73 

indicated  that  it  is  possible  to  dry  wood  rapidly  under  condi- 
tions such  as  insure  the  maintenance  of  its  original  form.  Here 
research  has  resulted  in  the  development  of  new  industries. 

Practically  all  wood  before  being  put  to  use  is  either  sea- 
soned in  the  air  or  dried  in  a  kiln.  The  main  objects  of  such 
seasoning  are  to  increase  the  durability  of  the  wood  in  service, 
to  prevent  it  from  shrinking  and  checking,  to  increase  its 
strength  and  stiffness,  to  prevent  it  from  staining,  and  to 
decrease  its  weight.  If  drying  wood  were  simply  a  matter  of 
evaporating  moisture,  it  would  be  a  comparatively  simple 
problem,  since  it  would  be  merely  that  of  supplying  the  neces- 
sary heat.  Wood,  however,  has  a  complicated  structure  and 
unless  timber  that  is  to  be  air  seasoned  is  piled  in  the  right  way, 
or  conditions  in  the  dry  kiln  are  maintained  according  to  certain 
physical  laws,  the  material  will  probably  warp  or  check  or  in 
some  way  be  damaged  seriously. 

Until  recently  proper  methods  of  seasoning  have  received  but 
little  attention  and  large  losses  were  common.  Often  25  per 
cent  of  the  seasoned  lumber  was  rendered  unfit  for  use  by 
defects  induced  by  drying. 

The  Forest  Service  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  as  stated  by  the  Forester,  Col.  H.  S.  Graves,  has 
conducted  investigations  in  the  kiln  drying  of  wood  for  several 
years  past  and  as  a  result  methods  have  been  developed  by 
which  lumber  can  be  dried  in  months  instead  of  years,  with  no 
loss  in  strength  as  compared  to  air-dried  material  and  with 
very  little  checking  or  warping.  The  data  from  these  investi- 
gations formed  the  basis  of  the  specifications  for  kiln  drying 
spruce  for  airplanes  adopted  by  the  Army  and  Navy.  As  the 
supply  of  air-dried  spruce  was  exhausted  soon  after  entering 
upon  the  war  and  air  drying  requires  two  years,  the  ability  to 
furnish  properly  dried  airplane  material  in  six  weeks  relieved  a 
somewhat  serious  situation  in  airplane  construction.  Vehicle 
material  was  generally  air  seasoned  before  the  war  for  two  or 
three  years.  The  demand  for  vehicles  for  war  purposes  soon  ex- 
hausted the  air-dried  stock  and  more  was  needed  at  once. 
Scientific  kiln-drying  methods  once  more  came  to  the  front  and 
properly  designed  kilns  were  built  and  material  dried  in  two 


74  WATER  RESOURCES 

months.  Runs  in  kilns  at  the  Rock  Island  Arsenal  on  artillery 
wheel  rims  and  spokes  show  losses  of  only  2  per  cent  and  even 
less. 

The  drying  of  black  walnut  for  gunstocks  and  of  willow  for 
artificial  limbs  are  examples  of  other  applications  of  kiln  drying 
to  war  material  where  air  drying  was  formerly  the  general 
practice,  and  in  each  case  the  time  was  reduced  from  years  to 
months  and  an  entirely  satisfactory  product  obtained. 

The  main  problem  in  kiln  drying  lumber  is  to  prevent  the 
moisture  from  evaporating  from  the  surface  of  the  pieces  faster 
than  it  is  brought  to  the  surface  from  the  interior.  When  this 
happens  the  surface  becomes  considerably  drier  than  the 
interior  and  begins  to  shrink.  If  the  difference  in  moisture 
content  is  sufficient,  the  surface  portion  opens  up  in  checks. 

The  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  wood  in  a  kiln  can  be 
controlled  to  a  large  degree  by  regulating  the  humidity,  tem- 
perature, and  amount  of  air  passing  over  the  wood ;  and  a 
correctly  designed  kiln,  especially  one  for  drying  the  more 
difficult  woods,  must  be  one  so  constructed  and  equipped  as  to 
insure  this  regulation. 

Even  more  important  in  its  advantages  to  the  human  race 
are  the  results  which  may  flow  from  the  investigations  of  the 
practicability  of  drying  bulky  foods  for  permanent  preservation 
and  for  convenience  of  transportation.  From  earliest  times 
mankind  has  largely  depended  for  winter  food  upon  dried  meats 
and  fruits,  but  the  old  processes  of  drying  in  the  sun  or  by  heat 
from  a  fire  have  usually  altered  the  flavor  and  changed  the 
food  value.  Recently  research  has  shown  that  there  are  ways 
in  which,  for  example,  potatoes  and  similar  vegetables  may  be 
deprived  of  their  water  or  dehydrated  with  great  shrinkage  in 
volume  and  size.  They  can  be  kept  for  an  indefinite  period 
and  then  when  well  soaked  will  resume  nearly  their  original 
bulk,  with  little  loss  of  flavor  or  of  food  qualities. 

When  the  fact  is  borne  in  mind  that  millions  of  tons  of 
potatoes  are  transported  each  year  and  other  millions  of  tons 
are  wasted  for  lack  of  transportation,  it  can  be  seen  that  by 
the  establishment  of  evaporation  or  dehydration  plants  the 
railroads  may  be  relieved  of  hauling  immense  tonnage;  food 


EVAPORATION  75 

can  be  transported  and  made  available  for  the  underfed  or 
starving  nations. 

Dehydration  methods  in  the  United  States  from  a  commercial 
standpoint  are  still  in  their  early  stages.  Much  careful  investi- 
gation is  yet  to  be  made,  particularly  as  to  the  processes  best 
adapted  for  general  use,  in  order  to  realize  modern  ideals  and 
meet  current  demands.  As  contrasted  with  the  older  forms  of 
simply  drying  fruits  and  vegetables,  the  later  methods  are  char- 
acterized by  a  treatment  in  which  the  foods  to  be  dehydrated 
are  subjected  to  the  action  of  carefully  regulated  currents  of 
air  in  which  the  temperature  and  humidity  are  both  controlled 
within  narrow  limits.1  If  this  is  done,  the  food  gradually  loses 
water  but  without  giving  up  its  flavor  or  color  or  having  its 
cellular  structure  impaired.  When  thus  treated  the  product 
will  reabsorb  water,  swelling  to  its  normal  size  and  appearance 
and  when  cooked  will  have  essentially  the  flavor,  appearance  and 
odor  of  freshly  cooked  material  made  from  fresh  vegetables. 

It  is  interesting  to  bring  into  comparison  the  efforts  being 
made,  on  the  one  hand,  to  get  water  to  the  soil  or  properly  to 
irrigate — or  "hydrate" — it  for  crop  production,  as  is  being 
done  by  individuals,  corporations,  and  other  organizations, 
with,  on  the  other  hand,  the  efforts  made  later  in  the  season 
to  dehydrate  the  crops  thus  produced.  For  example,  the 
city  of  Denver  has  not  only  provided  water  for  various  pur- 
poses, including  gardens,  but  plans  to  dehydrate  the  crops 
or  dry  them  so  that  they  can  be  shipped  or  preserved  indefi- 
nitely. Here  are  brought  together  the  hydration  or  bringing 
in  of  water  to  obtain  foods  and  the  taking  away  of  the  excess 
water  stored  in  the  mature  fruits. 

In  this  connection  note  should  be  made  that  for  every  pound 
of  dry  matter  produced  probably  five  hundred  pounds  of  water 
has  been  transpired  by  the  plant,  and  that  the  resulting  fruit 
consists  of  80  to  90  per  cent  of  water  or  from  four  to  nine 
times  the  weight  of  the  dehydrated  substance. 

i  Prescott,  S.  C.,  and  Sweet,  L.  D.,  "Commercial  Dehydration:  A  Factor 
in  the  solution  of  the  International  Food  Problem."  Annals  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Philadelphia,  May,  1919. 


CHAPTER  V 
RUN-IN 

QUANTITY  ABSORBED.  As  soon  as  the  rain  strikes  the  ground 
or  the  snow  melts,  a  portion  of  the  water,  as  before  stated, 
evaporates ;  it  "flies  off"  or  returns  to  the  atmosphere,  while 
the  remainder  starts  to  flow  away  on  the  surface.  Of  this 
latter,  some  "runs  in"  or  sinks  into  the  soil,  continuing  to  enter 
until  the  dry  surface  is  completely  saturated.  The  moisture 
travels  downwards  at  first  quite  rapidly  and  then  more  and 
more  slowly  as  it  reaches  deeper  and  more  compact  materials. 
In  the  arid  areas  of  the  country,  the  underlying  rocks  at  a 
depth  of  from  ten  to  a  hundred  feet  or  more  below  the  surface 
are  practically  dry,  although  at  rare  intervals  a  heavy  storm 
or  cloudburst  may  cause  water  to  penetrate  to  a  considerable 
depth.  In  the  humid  parts  of  the  country,  especially  in  the 
vicinity  of  rivers,  lakes,  or  swamps,  the  underground  layers 
are  always  full  of  water  and  only  the  surface  dries  out.  If  a 
deep  hole  is  dug  through  the  overlying  dry  soil,  it  will  finally 
penetrate  to  more  and  more  moist  rocks  and  then  reach  a  point 
where  water  begins  to  accumulate  and  finally  stands  at  a  cer- 
tain elevation  known  as  the  "water  table."  After  heavy  rains 
which  soak  the  overlying  soil,  the  water  table  slowly  rises,  while 
during  times  of  protracted  drought  it  gradually  sinks.  In  arid 
regions  a  well  may  be  drilled  to  a  depth  of  a  thousand  feet 
without  reaching  water,  but  in  the  more  humid  regions  the  soil 
normally  is  saturated  below  a  depth  of  only  a  few  feet. 

Where  a  natural  or  artificial  depression  like  a  well  or  drain 
is  sufficiently  deep  to  meet  the  water  plane,  the  moisture  appears 
on  the  side  and  collects  in  the  form  of  a  spring  or  seep.  The 
volume  of  water  flowing  from  such  a  spring  is  determined  by 
the  depth  of  the  hole  or  excavation  below  the  plane  of  saturation 
of  the  surrounding  country  and  by  the  ease  with  which  the 


RUN-IN  77 

water  can  move  through  the  rocks  and  soils  to  an  outlet.  Most 
natural  springs  are  small,  but  there  are  notable  examples  of 
streams  of  considerable  size  bursting  from  ravines  cut  in  the 
hill  slopes  by  the  erosive  action  of  the  storms. 

The  absorption  into  the  soil  of  the  water  from  rain  or  snow, 
its  passage  downward  under  the  influence  of  gravity,  and  its 
storage  in  the  ground  are  of  great  interest  in  connection  with 
water  conservation,  partly  because  of  the  difficulty  of  ascer- 
taining all  of  the  facts.  There  has  been  more  or  less  mystery 
connected  with  the  occurrence  of  water  underground  and  a 
tendency  to  a  belief  in  the  marvelous.  The  public  has  been 
imposed  upon  by  the  pretensions  of  so-called  "water  witches," 
who  claim  to  enjoy  supernatural  ability  to  locate  wells.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  however,  these  mysteries  gradually  disappear 
as  the  true  conditions  are  made  known  concerning  the  behavior 
of  water  in  the  pervious  rocks  or  soils.1  The  fundamental  fact 
to  be  remembered  is,  that  all  of  the  water  originally  comes  from 
the  rainfall  or  snowfall  upon  some  higher  area,  near  or  remote, 
and  that  it  travels  under  the  influence  of  gravity,  always  moving 
to  the  lowest  level  that  can  be  reached.  If  the  underlying  rocks 
are  gently  inclined  and  are  composed  of  alternating  layers  of 
different  permeability,  the  water  will  gradually  find  its  way 
downward  and  laterally  along  the  planes  of  least  resistance, 
escaping  as  a  spring  or  series  of  springs  in  a  deep  ravine  or  in 
the  bank  of  a  river.  If  in  the  course  of  its  travels  the  water 
becomes  trapped  under  a  higher  impervious  layer  of  rock,  it  may 
gradually  acquire  a  head  or  hydrostatic  pressure  tending  to 
lift  the  rock  cover.  A  hole  or  well,  drilled  through  this  imper- 
vious cover,  releases  some  of  the  water  thus  held  under  pressure 
and  permits  it  to  rise,  possibly  overflowing  the  surface,  forming 
what  is  called  an  artesian  well,  see  page  82,  the  name  being 
derived  from  Artois,  an  ancient  province  of  France  where  such 
wells  were  first  drilled.  If  the  casing  or  tubing  of  an  artesian 
well  is  continued  vertically  above  the  ground  surface,  the  water 
will  rise  to  a  point  nearly  level  with  that  of  the  place  of  origin, 
even  though  this  may  be  a  hundred  miles  or  more  away.  A  view 

i  Ellis,  Arthur  J.,  "The  Divining  Rod,  A  History  of  Water  Witching," 
U.  S.  G.  S.,  Water  Supply  Paper  No.  416,  1917. 


78  WATER  RESOURCES 

of  one  of  these  artesian  wells  is  shown  in  PL  XVII.  D,  this  being 
taken  in  the  vicinity  of  Roswell,  N.  M.,  where  large  areas  of 
desert  land  are  watered  by  means  of  bore  holes  of  this  character 
penetrating  to  a  water-bearing  sandstone. 

UNDERFLOW.  In  the  aggregate  there  is  a  vast  amount  of 
water  stored  underground  in  the  pervious  sands  and  gravels  and 
also  in  consolidated  rocks.  This  water  is  usually  moving  slowly 
to  points  where  it  is  escaping,  the  rate  of  movement  being  deter- 
mined by  the  hydraulic  head,  which  overcomes  the  resistance  to 
flow  through  the  interstices  between  the  particles  of  rock. 
Under  the  greater  part  of  the  plains  of  western  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  this  so-called  "Underflow"  has  been  noted.  This 
water,  passing  in  a  broad  sheet  beneath  the  surface  in  a  south- 
easterly direction,  comes  mainly  from  the  rain  which  has  fallen 
upon  the  porous  soils  of  the  high  plains.  It  is  on  its  way  to 
the  lower  levels,  where  it  escapes  to  form  numerous  small 
streams,  tributary  to  the  Arkansas,  Canadian,  and  neighboring 
rivers. 

The  occurrence  of  springs  in  ravines  on  the  plains  and  the 
remarkably  large  quantity  of  water  which  can  be  obtained  from 
underground  by  widely  separated  wells  has  given  rise  to  exag- 
gerated conceptions  of  the  vast  quantity  of  the  underflow.  It 
has  been  described  as  a  great  river  conveying  water  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  plains.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however, 
the  flow  is  an  extremely  slow  percolation  at  the  rate  of  a  foot 
or  so  a  day.  The  amount  available  at  any  one  point  is  neces- 
sarily small  because  of  this  slow  rate  of  delivery.  Though 
limited  in  quantity,  the  water  is  of  vital  importance  to  the 
farmer  and  stock  raiser  on  the  plains.  PI.  IV.  A  shows  one  of 
many  thousands  of  earthen  tanks.  This  is  supplied  with  water 
by  means  of  a  windmill,  such  as  are  common  on  the  Great  Plains, 
which  pumps  from  the  underflow  or  gravel  reservoir  beneath 
the  surface,  lifting  the  water  into  the  small  pond  on  the  surface 
from  which  it  can  be  quickly  drawn  to  irrigate  the  adjacent 
garden  or  orchard. 

An  illustration  of  the  amount  of  water  which  is  being  pumped 
from  underground  is  given  in  PL  XIII.  A,  this  showing  the 
output  of  pumps  near  Garden  City,  Kan.  The  water  is  being 


RUN-IN  79 

lifted  from  the  coarse  gravel  beds  which  underlie  the  valley 
and,  on  being  brought  to  the  surface,  is  distributed  to  the  fields 
planted  for  the  most  part  in  alfalfa  or  in  sugar  beets.  The  rate 
of  flow  has  been  measured  at  various  localities,  notably  by 
Charles  S.  Slichter.1  He  has  found  the  ordinary  rate  in  the 
Great  Plains  to  be  about  three  feet  a  day  or  a  mile  in  five  years. 
At  Garden  City,  Kan.,  where  the  fall  of  the  surface  of  the 
ground  is  about  seven  feet  per  mile,  he  has  measured  a  rate  of 
movement  of  2.5  feet  per  day  with  a  maximum  of  12  feet  a  day 
or  less  than  a  mile  a  year. 

Although  the  rate  of  flow  is  usually  not  much  more  than  a 
few  feet  a  day  as  just  noted,  yet  there  have  lately  been  dis- 
covered conditions  in  which  the  velocity  of  underground  water 
is  relatively  high.  Professor  Slichter  has  measured  recently 
in  Arizona  and  California  velocities  of  from  400  feet  to  800 
feet  per  24  hours,  not  in  especially  coarse  material,  but  in  steep 
gradients.  During  1914  he  studied  velocities  in  gravels  de- 
posited in  exceedingly  rapidly  moving  waters.  These  gravels 
are  so  systematically  arranged  with  their  longest  axes  of  indi- 
vidual particles  crosswise  to  the  current,  that  the  conductivity 
downstream  is  much  less  than  the  conductivity  crosswise,  so 
that  the  underground  waters  tend  to  dodge  back  and  forth 
crosswise  of  the  axis  of  the  valley.  Some  years  previously  he 
pointed  out  that  the  conductivity  of  a  stream-deposited  gravel 
was  different  in  three  different  directions,  which  he  called  the 
"axial"  directions.  From  the  results  of  similar  work  in  1885, 
F.  H.  Newell  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  conductivity 
perpendicular  to  the  bedding  was  in  many  cases  much  less  than 
the  conductivity  parallel  to  the  bedding.  The  investigation  of 
the  three  axial  components  in  gravels  deposited  in  rapidly 

1  For  a  discussion  of  the  conditions  and  rates  of  underground  move- 
ments, see  the  following: 

King,  F.  H.,  "Principles  and  conditions  of  the  movements  of  ground 
waters,"  19th  Report,  U.  S.  G.  S.,  Part  2,  1898. 

Slichter,  C.  S.,  "Investigations  of  movements  of  ground  waters,"  19th 
Report,  U.  S.  G.  S.,  Part  2,  1898. 

Slichter,  C.  S.,  "Motions  of  underground  waters,"  U.  S.  G.  S.,  Water 
Supply  Paper  No.  67,  1902. 

Slichter,  C.  S.,  "Field  measurements  of  rate  of  movement  of  underground 
water,"  U.  S.  G.  S.,  Water  Supply  Paper  No.  140,  1905. 


80  WATER  RESOURCES 

moving  waters  is  being  carried  on  by  Professor  Slichter  in  his 
laboratory  at  Madison,  Wis. 

The  occurrence  and  movement  of  waters  which  have  "run  in" 
from  the  surface  and  which  may  be  utilized  in  the  further  devel- 
opment of  the  country  have  been  the  subject  of  prolonged  study 
by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey ;  in  the  following  pages, 
Mr.  N.  H.  Darton  of  that  bureau,  who  has  devoted  his  life 
largely  to  these  matters,  gives  a  review  of  the  present  conditions 
of  knowledge  of  these  phenomena — and  points  out  incidentally 
the  need  of  continued  research. 

PASSAGE  OF  WATER  UNDERGROUND.  The  chief  factors  which 
control  or  influence  the  absorption  of  waters  underground  are 
the  texture  of  surface  material  and  of  the- rocks  below  and  in 
some  measure  the  configuration  of  the  land  and  conditions  of 
rainfall  or  snow  melting.  Absorption  of  water  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  most  rocks  are  somewhat  porous;  notably  sand  and 
gravel  can  store  from  5  to  15  per  cent  of  their  bulk  of  water. 
Sandstones  have  considerable  space  between  their  grains,  but 
their  porosity  varies  greatly  with  the  size  and  shape  of  particles 
and  with  the  amount  of  cementing  material  filling  the  inter- 
spaces;  in  the  case  of  quartzite  and  some  highly  calcareous 
sandstones,  the  pores  are  entirely  filled.  Limestones  are  only 
slightly  porous  but  they  are  always  traversed  by  joints  and 
toward  the  surface  contain  channels  and  caverns.  Clay,  shale, 
and  slate  have  but  very  slight  porosity;  however,  these  very 
compact  rocks  are  more  or  less  broken  and  traversed  by 
zones  of  decomposition  into  which  surface  waters  descend  for 
a  greater  or  less  distance.  In  many  regions,  also,  the  crystal- 
line rocks  are  deeply  decomposed  by  the  solution  of  some  of 
their  component  minerals  and  the  resulting  "rotten  rock"  may 
be  as  porous  as  sandstone.  Many  lavas  are  full  of  openings  and 
in  most  districts  they  are  underlain  by  coarse  fragmental 
deposits. 

Water  passes  into  the  ground  in  various  ways,  such  as  by 
direct  inhibition  of  rainfall,  the  sinking  of  surface  streams  in 
passing  over  zones  of  porous  rock,  the  spreading  of  streams 
laterally  into  the  sandy  deposits  of  their  valleys,  and  the  per- 
colation of  water  laterally  from  the  ocean  or  lakes.  In  all 


RUN-IN  81 

regions  it  is  found  that  the  total  surface  run-off  and  evaporation 
are  less  than  the  volume  of  rainfall,  thus  affording  evidence  of 
general  loss  of  water  in  the  ground.  Many  streams  are  ob- 
served to  diminish  in  volume  or  even  to  disappear  entirely  in 
running  over  areas  of  porous  sandstone,  cavernous  limestone 
or  permeable  portions  of  their  beds.  In  the  arid  regions  water 
flows  out  of  the  mountains  on  rocky  beds  and  then  gradually 
disappears  as  the  valley  widens.  Many  of  the  great  desert  flats 
are  underlain  by  water-bearing  sands,  the  water  being  derived 
largely  from  seepages  from  the  adjoining  highlands  and  from 
transient  rainfall,  yet  not  in  sufficient  volume  to  come  to  the 
surface. 

TYPICAL  UNDERGROUND  WATER  CONDITIONS.  It  will  appear 
from  the  above  statements  that  there  is  considerable  variety 
in  the  conditions  of  occurrence  and  volume  of  water  under- 
ground. In  many  regions  it  is  in  broad  sheets  flowing  slowly 
through  permeable  rocks,  while  in  other  places  it  is  in  caverns 
in  limestone,  crevices  in  the  harder  rocks,  or  deposits  of  gravel 
and  sand.  Some  of  it  emerges  again  as  springs  in  hillsides, 
valley  bottoms  and  even  out  under  the  ocean — as  off  the  east 
coast  of  Florida.  In  some  districts,  such  as  the  enclosed  desert 
basins,  the  water  is  in  the  form  of  an  underground  lake  and 
without  movement.  The  volume  depends  upon  the  conditions 
of  occurrence,  the  water  often  filling  or  partly  filling  strata 
of  considerable  thickness,  extending  down  fissures  several  hun- 
dred feet  deep,  or  saturating  bodies  of  decomposed  crystalline 
rock. 

Waters  which  extend  widely  underground  are  mostly  con- 
tained in  sandstones  and  some  of  these  water  bearers  are  of 
vast  extent  and  descend  to  great  depth.  Two  conditions  which 
are  typical  of  waters  of  this  class  are  shown  in  Fig.  1.  In 
the  upper  section  a  bed  of  sandstone  receives  water  from  rain- 
fall or  sinking  of  streams  in  the  highlands  at  A.  The  water  pass- 
ing underground  into  an  artesian  basin  has  sufficient  head  to 
yield  flowing  wells  on  lower  land  as  at  B.  In  the  second  section 
the  conditions  are  somewhat  similar  but  the  water  escapes  in 
springs  at  D,  so  there  is  a  gradual  diminution  in  pressure  or 
head  from  C  to  D  known  as  "hydraulic  grade." 


82 


WATER  RESOURCES 


Figure   1 . 

Sections   illustrating  conditions   which  control   formation   of   flowing  wells 

or  of  springs. 

One  of  the  best  illustrations  of  long-distance  travel  of  under- 
ground water  is  in  the  central  Great  Plains,  especially  in  South 
Dakota,  where  the  conditions  are  similar  to  those  shown  in  the 
lower  section  in  Fig.  1.  The  water  passes  into  the  Dakota 
and  associated  sandstones  in  their  elevated  outcrop  zone  along 
the  foot  of  the  Black  Hills  and  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  carried 
in  these  sandstones  under  a  thick  cover  of  relatively  imperme- 
able shale  or  clay  and  escapes  slowly  in  springs  in  an  eastern 
outcrop  area  4,000  feet  lower.  In  the  intervening  200  miles 
the  water  is  tapped  by  many  artesian  wells  which  yield  large 
flows  and  have  pressures  up  to  200  pounds  per  square  inch — 
the  latter  unquestionably  indicating  the  connection  with  the 
highland  source  to  the  west.  In  valleys  there  is  in  general  a 
flow  from  the  sides  to  the  center  along  the  lines  of  greatest 
declivity  and  also  more  or  less  movement  down  the  center  of 
the  valley.  In  the  vicinity  of  Deming,  N.  M.,  the  underflow  of 
the  Mimbres  River  passes  under  the  desert  flat  along  an  old 
course  deserted  some  time  ago. 

In  the  case  of  granites  and  other  crystalline  rocks  the  under- 
ground water  problem  presents  peculiar  conditions  which  are 
difficult  to  study.  Ordinarily  such  rocks  are  not  underlaid  by 
a  porous  stratum  and  are  too  compact  to  carry  any  water 
supply.  Others,  however,  are  broken  by  joint  planes  and  occa- 
sionally deeply  disintegrated  so  that  more  or  less  water  is 


RUN-IN  83 

stored  in  their  upper  portions.  Some  of  the  crevices  extend  for 
long  distances  and  in  certain  localities  pass  under  clays  or 
other  confining  deposits  in  lower  lands  so  that  "head"  is  estab- 
lished and  they  may  yield  an  artesian  flow.  The  occurrence  of 
water  in  crystalline  rocks  is  generally  difficult  for  the  geologist 
to  predict,  but  in  some  places  the  rock  structure  is  so  evident 
that  it  may  guide  to  a  successful  forecast. 

QUANTITY  or  WATER.  The  volume  of  water  obtainable  from 
underground  sources  is  exceedingly  variable  in  different  regions, 
and  in  some  places  within  short  distances.  In  the  larger  arte- 
sian basins  where  the  water  is  contained  in  thick  beds  of  sand- 
stone the  volume  is  not  only  large  but  in  general  uniform  under 
wide  areas.  In  the  basin  in  eastern  South  Dakota,  for  example, 
there  are  many  wells  that  yield  from  300  to  500  gallons  a 
minute  (0.8  to  1.3  second- feet)  and  a  few  large  wells  flow  from 
2,000  to  4,000  gallons  a  minute  (4.4  to  9  second- feet).  The 
area  in  which  this  condition  prevails  occupies  many  square 
miles,  and  in  the  aggregate  there  is  a  large  volume  of  water 
flowing  from  these  wells.  The  water  has  been  used  for  irriga- 
tion, but  its  greatest  value  has  been  for  municipal  and  domestic 
supply.  In  the  Roswell  district  in  the  Pecos  Valley,  N.  M.,  the 
larger  wells  yield  from  500  to  700  gallons  a  minute  (1.3  to 
nearly  2  second- feet),  and  a  few  of  them  have  yielded  more 
than  1,500  gallons  (nearly  4  second-feet),  but  apparently  the 
volume  and  pressure  have  diminished  considerably  in  the  past 
few  years. 

QUALITY  OF  WATER.  Underground  waters  vary  as  much  in 
quality  as  in  quantity  and  in  some  cases  in  as  short  distances, 
but  in  general  they  are  of  a  high  degree  of  purity  and  when 
protected  from  surface  contamination,  they  are  free  from  dis- 
ease germs  and  therefore  highly  advantageous.  Some  of  them 
are  mineralized  from  contact  with  rocks  and  minerals,  ordi- 
narily more  so  than  are  surface  waters.  This  is  because  of  the 
vastly  longer  time  of  contact,  for  time  is  an  important  factor 
in  mineral  solution ;  pressure  and  high  temperature  also  act  in 
some  cases.  Accordingly  waters  which  come  from  salt-bearing 
deposits  are  saline,  those  from  the  gypsiferous  strata  contain 
much  calcium  sulphate,  those  from  limestones  are  "hard"  or 


84  WATER  RESOURCES 

more  or  less  saturated  with  calcium  carbonate,  while  iron, 
magnesium,  and  many  other  mineral  constituents  occur  in 
various  proportions. 

Sandstones,  sand,  and  gravel  are  the  materials  most  favor- 
able for  the  storage  of  underground  waters  and  as  these  mostly 
contain  but  little  soluble  mineral,  the  waters  derived  from  them 
are  of  notable  purity.  An  excellent  instance  of  this  is  the  group 
of  wells  100  to  300  feet  deep  in  eastern  South  Carolina,  some 
of  which  yield  water  in  which  the  total  solid  matter  ranges 
from  only  20  to  63  parts  per  million.  In  the  West  the  propor- 
tions are  generally  higher;  a  notably  pure  water  at  Deming, 
N.  M.,  from  wells  85  to  240  feet  deep,  contains  only  from  224 
to  240  parts  per  million  of  solid  matter  (13  to  14  grains  to  the 
gallon). 

In  places  where  there  are  flows  at  various  depths,  the  quali- 
ties generally  differ;  for  instance,  in  South  Dakota  the  lower 
flows  which  are  sought  because  they  are  larger  in  volume  and 
contain  much  more  mineral  than  the  upper  flows.  In  sinking  the 
deep  boring  at  Edgemont,  S.  D.,  considerable  water  found  in 
the  red  beds  was  high  in  mineral  content  but  the  main  flow  from 
the  lower  sandstone  was  found  to  be  of  satisfactory  quality 
after  the  higher  flows  had  been  cased  off. 

SEARCH  FOR  UNDERGROUND  WATER.  In  the  extension  of 
settlement,  especially  in  the  western  United  States,  water  supply 
for  domestic  and  stock  use  is  an  all-important  consideration. 
In  some  districts  the  pioneers  have  found  that  a  satisfactory 
supply  is  obtainable,  but  there  are  many  places  where  settlers 
have  established  themselves  and  then  been  disappointed  in 
securing  sufficient  water.  For  wide  areas  few  data  are  avail- 
able or  the  preliminary  test  wells  have  been  unsatisfactory. 
In  most  of  these  localities  the  determination  of  prospects  for 
underground  water  is  a  subject  requiring  geological  investi- 
gation, for  the  problem  of  water  supply  is  one  which  necessi- 
tates study  by  a  geologist,  especially  if  it  concerns  the  pros- 
pects for  artesian  flow,  also  questions  of  permanence  and  of 
similar  features.  As  the  water  is  contained  in  sand,  sandstones 
and  various  other  rocks  which  are  included  in  the  succession 
of  strata  constituting  the  earth's  crust,  the  relations  of  water- 


RUN-IN  85 

bearing  beds  are  similar  to  those  of  coal  beds  and  other  forma- 
tions. In  many  areas  the  water-bearing  stratum  is  carried  to 
great  depths  by  downward  dips  of  monoclines  or  basins  and 
it  may  be  overlaid  by  strata  presenting  considerable  strati- 
graphic  complexity.  Locally  it  may  be  cut  off  by  faults  and 
igneous  masses  or  affected  by  metamorphism  and  other  varia- 
tions in  texture,  especially  in  changes  in  fineness  and  coarseness 
of  the  sediments. 

The  study  of  such  problems  often  requires  the  determination 
of  geologic  conditions  and  structure  in  adjoining  areas  because 
the  evidence  may  be  widely  scattered  and  much  of  it  far  distant 
from  the  place  where  the  water  is  desired.  Considerable  infor- 
mation is  also  required  as  to  the  topographic  conditions  or  at 
least  as  to  the  altitude  of  the  land  where  the  question  of  head  and 
delimitation  of  flow  area  have  to  be  considered.  The  collection 
of  data  of  wells  already  in  existence  is  an  important  branch  of 
this  research  because  facts  as  to  position  and  character  of 
water-bearing  strata,  height  of  water  in  wells,  or  pressure  if 
wells  are  flowing,  and  quality  of  water,  throw  much  light  on 
prospects  in  adjoining  areas. 

The  determination  of  depths  to  artesian  waters  contained  in 
stratified  rocks  sometimes  can  be  made  readily,  but  in  many 
districts  prediction  must  be  based  on  careful  examination  of  the 
local  geologic  conditions.  The  principal  basis  is  knowledge  of 
the  thickness  of  the  strata,  and  while  for  some  regions  such 
facts  are  already  available,  in  others  it  is  necessary  to  trace  the 
strata  to  their  surface  outcrops,  which  are  often  miles  from  the 
locality  in  question.  The  structure,  or  dips  and  possible  faults 
of  the  strata  in  the  intervening  country,  also  has  to  be  carefully 
considered.  The  records  of  borings  in  the  neighborhood  may 
throw  important  light  on  underground  relations,  although  in 
most  cases  the  records  of  drillings  or  "logs"  are  so  poorly  kept 
that  they  are  misleading;  great  care  must  be  used  in  identifying 
the  strata  penetrated.  Samples  of  the  borings  are  much  more 
valuable,  especially  if  they  have  been  carefully  collected  and 
labeled.  An  illustration  of  conditions  controlling  certain  arte- 
sian conditions  in  a  region  such  as  the  Central  Great  Plains  is 
shown  in  the  following  section: 


86  WATER  RESOURCES 


Figure  2. 

Profile   showing  factors   indicating   depth   to   water-bearing  stratum   at   a 

given  locality. 

Suppose  that  a  boring  is  desired  at  A.  The  geologist,  from 
an  examination  of  the  country  from  A  to  B,  which  may  be  a 
distance  of  many  miles,  concludes  that  the  only  promising 
water-bearing  formation  is  the  stratum  outcropping  at  C.  By 
carefully  measuring  the  dips  of  the  many  strata  outcropping 
from  C  to  A,  especially  if  aided  by  a  distinct  bed  as  at  D,  he 
can  construct  a  cross  section  such  as  the  one  given  in  the  figure. 
On  this  section,  for  example,  he  can  base  a  prediction  that  at  A 
the  top  of  the  water-bearing  bed  may  be  expected  at  a  depth  of 
700  feet,  providing  the  strata  do  not  thicken  or  thin  materially 
in  the  distance.  An  interesting  illustration  of  such  a  prediction 
is  at  Edegmont,  S.  D.,  where  N.  H.  Darton  estimated  that 
the  water-bearing  sandstone  would  be  found  at  a  depth  of 
about  3,000  feet.  In  verification  of  this  prediction,  the  Chi- 
cago, Burlington  &  Quincy  Railroad  well  struck  it  at  2,965 
feet,  and  obtained  a  large  flow. 

The  determination  of  prospects  for  artesian  flows  may  require 
extensive  investigation  not  only  of  geologic  conditions  but  of 
topography  also  unless  data  are  already  available  along  these 
lines.  The  consideration  of  head  and  its  grade  is  an  important 
factor  in  ascertaining  the  areas  in  which  artesian  flow  is  to  be 
expected.  In  many  regions  of  ridges  and  valleys  flows  are 
obtainable  in  the  low  lands,  but  the  water  must  be  pumped  to 
the  surface  of  the  higher  lands.  If  the  head  were  level  there 
would  be  no  difficulty  in  predicting  the  altitude  at  which  flowing 
water  is  obtainable,  but  when  there  is  a  slope  or  "hydraulic 


RUX-IN 


87 


grade"  due  to  leakage,  as  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4,  careful  con- 
sideration must  be  given  to  the  configuration  of  the  land. 


Figure  3. 
Apparatus  illustrating  loss  of  head  or  hydraulic  grade  due  to  leakage. 

The  outflow  at  C  causes  the  water  to  fall  in  outlets  E,  E,  E,  below  the 
level  of  A.  The  dotted  line  D-D  indicates  the  hydraulic  grade.  If  C  is 
closed,  this  line  D-D  will  tend  to  become  more  nearly  horizontal  from  A. 


Figure  4. 
Profile  indicating  conditions  of  success  or  failure  of  artesian  wells. 

The  sandstone  resting  on  granite,  as  indicated  in  above  figure,  receives 
water  at  X;  some  of  this  ultimately  escapes  in  springs  in  the  valley  bottom. 
A  well  drilled  at  a,  being  below  the  hydraulic  grade, — which  is  indicated  by 
the  dotted  line, — will  flow,  while  one  at  b  will  not. 


The  conditions  in  central  South  Dakota  furnish  an  excellent 
illustration  of  an  investigation  of  prospects  for  flows  in  parts  of 
a  broad  artesian  basin.  As  explained  above,  the  water  enters 
the  sandstone  in  its  outcrop  zone  in  the  Black  Hills  and  finally 
leaks  out  in  springs  where  this  sandstone  comes  to  or  near  the 
surface  200  miles  east,  in  lands  about  4,000  feet  lower.  The 
water  is  held  down  in  the  intervening  district  by  a  thick  body 
of  shale  which  is  nearly  impermeable;  where  the  water-bearing 
bed  is  reached  by  deep  wells  high  pressures  are  found.  If  it 


88  WATER  RESOURCES 

were  not  for  the  outflow  to  the  east  and  possibly  some  slight 
general  leakage,  the  pressure  would  be  greater  and  the  flow  area 
larger,  because  the  initial  head  is  equal  to  an  altitude  of  4,000 
feet  or  more.  As  it  is,  a  "hydraulic  grade"  is  sustained  by  the 
great  friction  of  the  water  in  its  slow  flow  through  the  small 
interstices  of  the  sandstone.  Owing  to  this  grade  the  head  falls 
below  the  altitude  of  the  land  in  many  parts  of  the  district 
and  accordingly  the  flow  area  is  considerably  restricted. 

Some  of  the  negative  features  of  underground  water  pre- 
diction are  of  great  importance.  In  many  localities  it  is  evident 
from  the  geologic  conditions  that  no  water  supply,  or  at  least 
no  artesian  flow,  can  be  obtained ;  in  such  places  it  is  possible 
to  avoid  the  great  waste  of  expense  of  deep  boring  which  cannot 
succeed.  This  condition  is  occasionally  evident  from  the  surface 
geologic  facts  or  may  be  inferred  from  the  samples  of  borings 
after  certain  beds  have  been  penetrated.  There  are  frequent 
instances  of  deep  borings  made  in  compact  granites  or  other 
crystalline  rocks  which  a  geologist  of  experience  knows  cannot 
contain  water,  or  in  shales  which  are  so  thick  that  underlying 
strata  cannot  be  reached  by  the  means  available.  It  is  prob- 
able that  in  the  aggregate  the  warnings  against  hopeless  borings 
have  been  even  more  valuable  than  the  predictions  that  water 
would  be  found.  These  warnings  have  saved  the  waste  of  large 
amounts  of  money,  but  sometimes  they  will  not  deter  the  driller 
who  has  some  theory  of  his  own  which  he  believes  is  of  greater 
value  than  the  scientific  deductions  of  the  geologist.  On  the 
other  hand  also,  boring  has  been  discontinued  in  many  places 
where  the  geologist  knows  that  at  greater  depth  there  is  almost 
a  certainty  of  obtaining  flowing  water  or  a  supply  that  can  be 
pumped. 

CONSERVATION  OF  UNDERGROUND  WATERS.  As  the  reservoirs 
of  artesian  and  other  underground  waters  are  not  of  unlimited 
capacity,  depletion  is  sure  to  follow  excessive  draft  and  long- 
continued  waste.  The  general  head  of  the  artesian  water  inevi- 
tably decreases  when  the  outflow  is  in  excess  of  the  intake ; 
locally  the  head  is  sensitive  to  the  drain  of  many  flowing  wells 
near  together  because  the  underground  movement  of  water  is  so 
slow.  Time  is  an  important  factor  in  sustaining  the  outflow 


RUN-IN  89 

when  there  are  many  outlets  in  a  restricted  area.  Generally  a 
flowing  well  is  more  valuable  to  the  user  than  one  from  which 
the  water  has  to  be  pumped,  so  that  when  flow  ceases  and  pump- 
ing is  necessary  the  well  passes  into  a  different  category — 
especially  as  the  available  volume  of  water  usually  diminishes 
at  the  same  time. 

The  effect  of  vigorous  pumping  of  adjoining  wells  in  dimin- 
ishing or  stopping  flow  and  in  reducing  the  water  level  in  pump 
wells  is  frequently  observed  and  raises  an  important  question 
of  equity.  There  are  many  localities  at  which  flows  were  origi- 
nally obtainable  where  now  the  head  has  been  so  diminished  that 
pumping  is  necessary.  A  notable  instance  is  Denver,  Colo., 
where  twenty  years  ago  the  head  was  sufficient  to  afford  flows 
at  moderate  heights  throughout  the  city  while  now  the  water 
must  be  pumped  and  the  volume  is  much  less.  This  is  caused 
by  the  multiplicity  of  wells  from  which  water  is  pumped  faster 
than  it  comes  in  at  the  intake  zone. 

Another  notable  example  is  the  Pecos  Valley  artesian  area 
about  Roswell,  N.  M.,  where  the  amount  of  water  and  width 
of  flow  area  have  been  steadily  diminishing.  Still  another  is  in 
southern  California,  where  heavy  draft  for  orchard  irrigation 
caused  many  wells  to  stop  flowing  accompanied  by  diminution 
of  the  area  of  artesian  flow.  Fortunately  this  overdraft  has 
been  restricted  somewhat  and  an  attempt  is  now  made  to  keep 
the  water  level  uniform.  Such  restrictions  for  the  perpetuation 
of  supply  are  all  important,  for  when  the  amount  of  water 
available  diminishes,  irrigation  projects  are  impaired  and  settle- 
ment is  retarded.  This  is  especially  deplorable  where  the  water 
has  been  permitted  to  run  to  waste  as  in  Pecos  Valley  and  other 
regions.  In  South  Dakota  and  some  other  states,  laws  have 
been  passed  imposing  fines  for  waste  of  underground  water. 

For  many  years  geologists  employed  by  the  federal  govern- 
ment have  been  investigating  underground  water  prospects,  as 
well  as  all  other  water  resources  in  many  parts  the  United 
States,  and  several  of  the  State  Surveys  have  conducted  local 
investigations.  It  is  now  universally  recognized  that  these  prob- 
lems of  development  and  use  of  supplies  are  mainly  geological; 
a  knowledge  of  structural  relations,  rock  characters  and  other 


90  WATER  RESOURCES 

allied  features  are  the  main  factors  for  consideration.  The 
work  in  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  was  inaugurated 
in  1894  and  it  has  since  continued  without  interruption.  Many 
reports  have  been  published  affording  a  vast  number  of  data  in 
various  portions  of  the  country.  However,  a  great  area  still 
remains  to  be  investigated  and  many  parts  of  areas  already 
examined  are  yet  to  be  tested  by  deep  borings  before  their 
capabilities  can  be  definitely  known. 

The  subsoil  water  has  been  studied  particularly  by  the  Bureau 
of  Soils  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  One  of  the  most 
suggestive  results  is  the  bulletin1  prepared  by  Dr.  W  J  McGee 
who  conducted  inquiries  as  to  the  height  of  the  ground  water 
throughout  the  United  States.  His  data  indicate  that  there  has 
been  a  lowering  of  subsoil  water  level  of  about  3.5  feet  per 
decade ;  in  the  older  states  the  average  lowering  since  settlement 
appears  to  be  not  less  than  9  feet.  This  is  presumably  the 
result  of  the  cutting  off  of  the  source  of  supply;  the  storm 
waters  rush  off  in  floods  instead  of  passing  into  the  soil.  This 
waste  is  in  part  preventable.  The  public  welfare  demands  that 
efforts  be  made  to  continue  the  acquisition  of  data  and  the 
enlargement  of  general  knowledge  so  that  steps  may  be  taken 
to  conserve  the  ground  water  and  to  prevent  flood  waste  which 
impoverishes  the  soil  and  impairs  the  value  of  the  larger  water- 
ways as  sources  of  water  supply  and  for  power  and  navigation. 

i  McGee,  W  J,  "Wells  and  Subsoil  Water,"  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Soils,  Bulletin  No.  92,  1913. 


Plate  IV.  A. 

Small  earth  reservoirs  or  tanks  for  storage  of  water  pumped  by  windmills 
from  so-called  underflow,  Garden  City,  Kansas. 


Storage   in   mountains. 


Plate  IV.  B. 

Jackson    Lake    at   head   of    Snake    River,    Idaho- 
Wyoming. 


Plate  IV.  C. 
Brush  wing  dams  to  prevent  erosion  of  levees,  near  Yuma,  Arizona. 


Plate  IV.  D. 

Sedimentation,   adding   silt   to   clear   water    for   the   purpose   of   reducing 
seepage  from  a  canal,  Minidoka  Project,  Idaho. 


CHAPTER  VI 
RUN-OFF 

The  term  "run-off"  has  come  into  common  use  to  designate 
the  water  which  flows  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  rills, 
uniting  to  form  brooks,  creeks,  and  rivers.  It  is  that  part  of 
the  rain-  or  snowfall  which  remains  after  a  portion — the  "fly- 
off" — has  been  evaporated  and  another  part — the  "run-in"- 
has  been  lost  by  soaking  into  the  ground. 

The  question  as  to  the  relation  between  the  rainfall  and  the 
run-off  is  one  which  has  been  frequently  discussed.  Many 
efforts  have  been  made  to  express  the  run-off  as  a  percentage  or 
ratio  of  the  rainfall.  These  have  not  been  successful  because 
of  the  fact — as  noted  on  page  66 — that  the  run-off  is  not  prop- 
erly a  fixed  or  definite  proportion  of  the  rainfall.  On  the  con- 
trary it  is  the  surplus  or  remainder  after  absorption  and  evapo- 
ration each  has  had  its  share.  It  thus  happens  frequently 
in  the  drier  regions  or  at  times  of  drought  in  humid  climates, 
that  all  of  the  rain  which  falls  in  a  light  shower  is  evaporated 
even  before  it  touches  the  earth  (see  page  55),  or  it  may  dis- 
appear into  the  soil  without  giving  any  visible  run-off. 

Taking  any  one  locality,  however,  it  is  often  possible  to  state 
the  average  run-off  and  from  this  draw  useful  conclusions  as 
to  what  may  happen  in  this  and  similar  localities.  For  example, 
in  some  parts  of  New  England  where  the  measurements  of  rain- 
fall and  of  run-off  have  been  continued  for  many  years,  it  has 
been  found  that  ordinarily  about  one-half  of  the  rainfall  appears 
in  the  rivers  flowing  to  the  ocean.  ATS  we  go  west  from  New 
England,  it  is  found  that  the  run-off  decreases  more  rapidly 
than  does  the  average  rainfall,  so  that  in  the  Middle  West  we 
may  say  that  from  20  to  25  per  cent  of  the  rainfall  appears  as 
run-off. 


92  WATER  RESOURCES 

When  the  annual  rainfall  drops  as  low  as  15  to  20  inches  and 
arid  conditions  prevail,  the  run-off  becomes  proportionately  far 
less — down  to  5  per  cent  or  less  of  the  precipitation.  In  the 
country  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  is  an  area  known 
as  the  Great  Basin  from  which  there  is  no  run-off.  The  rivers 
which  rise  in  the  forested  slopes  of  the  mountains  flow  out  from 
these  into  the  lower  valleys  where  their  waters  disappear  com- 
pletely and  the  streams,  never  reaching  the  ocean  or  large  lake, 
are  described  as  "lost  rivers."  In  former  geological  ages  these 
interior  basins  are  known  to  have  been  filled  to  the  point  of  over- 
flow, but  within  the  historic  period  the  level  of  the  lakes  or 
marshes  into  which  these  lost  rivers  disappear  is  several  hun- 
dred feet  below  the  point  where  the  water  formerly  escaped  on 
its  way  to  the  sea. 

The  character  of  the  topography  necessarily  has  a  direct 
influence  upon  the  quantity  of  run-off,  for  if  the  rain  falls  upon 
a  flat  surface  from  which  it  can  flow  away  only  after  the  lapse 
of  an  appreciable  time,  a  much  greater  portion  will  sink  into 
the  ground  or  will  be  lost  by  evaporation,  as  noted  on  pages  66 
and  76,  than  would  be  the  case  if  the  rain  fell  upon  steep  slopes 
and  was  immediately  concentrated  in  rivulets  or  torrents.  Thus 
the  run-off  from  hilly  or  mountainous  country  must  obviously 
be  more  rapid  and  in  greater  proportion  than  the  run-off  from 
the  plains  or  prairies.  A  classification  of  lands  by  topographi- 
cal conditions  and  as  regards  run-off  has  been  found  convenient 
because  of  this  fact  and  also  because  of  the  related  condition 
that  the  elevated  or  mountainous  region  usually  receives  heavier 
and  more  nearly  continuous  precipitation  than  the  plains. 

One  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  indicate  the  relation  which 
exists  between  topography,  rainfall,  and  run-off  is  that  given 
in  the  fourteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  United  States  Geologi- 
cal Survey,  Part  II,  in  what  has  since  been  named  the  Newell 
curve.  There  is  also  given  a  map  of  the  mean  annual  rainfall 
and  one  of  the  mean  annual  run-off,  the  diagram  serving  to 
connect  in  a  general  way  the  relation  which  exists  between  these 
two  maps. 

Any  estimate  of  the  probable  flow  based  upon  a  study  of 
rainfall  data  is  liable  to  large  errors — therefore  most  engineers 


RUN-OFF  93 

have  reached  the  conclusion  that  it  is  safer  to  depend  upon 
direct  measurements  of  the  run-off,  if  such  are  available,  and  to 
base  their  conclusions  upon  their  measurements  rather  than 
upon  inferences  drawn  from  the  available  records  of  the  time 
and  quantity  of  the  rain.  Thus,  although  the  measurements 
of  precipitation  should  be  continued  and  extended,  it  is  evi- 
dently of  equal  or  greater  importance,  in  considering  reclama- 
tion projects  or  systems  of  water  storage,  to  make  as  many 
direct  measurements  as  possible  of  the  amount  of  water  which 
actually  occurs  in  the  streams  at  important  points  day  by  day 
and  year  by  year.  Observations  carried  on  through  a  series  of 
years  show  that  the  run-off  on  any  stream  fluctuates  more 
widely  even  than  the  rainfall. 

Systematic  research  and  collection  of  data  on  stream  flow 
was  begun  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  in  1888, 
primarily  for  ascertaining  the  extent  to  which  the  arid  lands  of 
the  western  part  of  the  country  might  be  reclaimed  by  irriga- 
tion.1 Later  the  observations  and  measurements  were  gradually 
extended  throughout  the  eastern  states,  furnishing  information 
needed  by  engineers  and  investors  in  connection  with  water 
power  development,  drainage  and  flood  protection.  Gagings  or 
measurements  of  the  rate  of  flow  at  different  heights  of  water 
have  been  made  on  many  hundred  rivers,  large  and  small.  From 
these  data,  computations  have  been  made  of  the  average  flow 
through  seasons  or  years — also  of  the  greatest  floods  and 
droughts.  Most  of  these  estimates  extend  over  only  a  few 
years — but  for  some  important  localities  facts  are  now  avail- 
able showing  the  fluctuations  on  river  discharge  for  a  quarter  of 
a  century. 

In  looking  over  the  results  of  stream  measurements,  the  most 
striking  feature  is  the  great  variation  in  run-off  between  the 
eastern  and  western  rivers,  the  difference  being  entirely  out  of 
proportion  to  the  difference  in  rainfall  in  the  two  areas.  Com- 
paring, for  example,  the  Susquehanna  River  of  Pennsylvania, 

i  Newell,  F.  H.,  "Result  of  Stream  Measurement,"  14th  Annual  Report, 
U.  S.  G.  S.,  Part  II,  pp.  95-155. 

Also,  "Methods  and  Results  of  Stream  Measurements  by  U.  S.  G.  S.," 
Proceedings  Engineers'  Club,  Philadelphia,  Vol.  XII,  July,  1895. 


94  WATER  RESOURCES 

having  a  drainage  of  over  24,000  square  miles,  with  the  Rio 
Grande  of  New  Mexico,  with  a  drainage  area  of  30,000  square 
miles,  it  is  found  that  the  average  run-off  of  the  Susquehanna 
is  30  times  as  great  although  the  rainfall  on  the  basin  is  prob- 
ably not  more  than  three  times  as  heavy. 

The  average  flow  per  square  mile  drained  is  usually  less  for 
the  larger  drainage  basins — the  outflow  from  which  has  been 
measured — than  from  the  smaller ;  or  to  put  it  in  another  way, 
the  headwater  tributaries  discharge  more  water  per  square  mile 
of  area  from  which  this  water  flows  than  does  the  main  stream 
lower  down.  This  loss  is  due  to  evaporation,  and  seepage,  or 
the  discrepancy  may  arise  from  the  facts  that  the  rainfall  is  not 
as  uniformly  distributed  nor  as  general  over  the  larger  tribu- 
tary country  as  on  the  smaller  possibly  more  mountainous  area. 

For  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  where  the  rain- 
fall in  general  is  from  30  to  40  inches  in  depth,  the  yearly  run- 
off is  from  1.2  to  1.8  second- feet  per  square  mile,  while  in  the 
less  humid  country  it  may  drop,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Rio  Grande 
and  Colorado  rivers  of  the  West,  to  0.01  or  less  second-feet  per 
square  mile.  In  wet  years  the  average  flow  may  be  double  that 
of  the  ordinary  run-off  and  in  times  of  drought  the  flow  may 
nearly  or  completely  cease.  Taking  a  dry  year,  the  total  dis- 
charge is  usually  not  less  than  half  the  average  flow  for  a 
decade. 

Especial  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  fact  that  the  losses 
by  evaporation  which  take  place,  to  a  large  extent,  are  constant, 
regardless  of  the  location,  the  chief  differences  depending  upon 
the  length  of  the  growing  season.  These  losses  range  from 
19  to  28  inches;  unless  the  rainfall  exceeds  this  amount  there 
will  be  practically  no  run-off,  except  floods  due  to  excessive 
precipitation.  This  fact  is  illustrated  by  plates  9  and  10  in  the 
fourth  edition  of  Hoyt  and  Grover's  "River  Discharge,"  help- 
ing to  explain  the  wide  difference  in  run-off  from  eastern  and 
western  areas. 

It  is  important  to  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  during  the  grow- 
ing period  the  losses  amount  to  about  3%  inches  per  month. 
The  losses  during  other  periods  will  amount  to  about  5  inches ; 
therefore,  in  an  area  where  the  growing  season  is  six  months,  a 


RUN-OFF  95 

loss  may  be  expected  of  about  25  inches,  or  with  a  50-inch 
rainfall,  there  should  be  about  25  inches  of  run-off. 

During  the  days  of  greatest  flood  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic 
Coast  may  discharge  for  several  hours  at  a  time  at  a  rate  of 
from  20  to  50  second-feet  for  each  square  mile  of  drainage 
basin.  In  comparison  with  these,  the  western  streams  in  flood 
rarely  contain  more  than  one-tenth  of  this  quantity. 

FLOODS  AND  DROUGHT.  The  extremes  of  river  flow  are  among 
the  causes  of  some  of  the  great  catastrophes  to  which  humanity 
is  subjected;  great  floods  destroying  lives  and  property  have 
occurred  in  all  ages  and  in  all  countries.  During  the  present 
decade  the  annual  and  often  preventable  losses  in  the  United 
States  amount  to  many  millions  of  dollars.  The  earliest  legends 
of  many  nations  of  antiquity  refer  to  some  great  flood  or  deluge 
which  practically  wiped  out  the  majority  of  the  people  then 
living,  only  a  few  persons  surviving  to  perpetuate  the  race; 
the  impression  made  upon  the  human  mind  testifies  to  the  over- 
whelming damage  wrought. 

On  the  other  extreme  are  the  droughts  which,  while  less  strik- 
ing in  their  immediate  catastrophic  effect,  have  had  far-reaching 
result  in  forcing  the  migration  of  tribes  or  of  nations  and  in 
thus  producing  great  movements  of  humanity  in  which  wave 
after  wave  of  barbarians  from  the  more  desert  places  have  been 
driven  into  Europe  and  have  made  history.  While  some  floods 
or  droughts  have  been  the  immediate  result  of  an  unusually 
large  or  small  rainfall,  yet  many  have  come  from  the  cumula- 
tive effect  of  small  differences  of  precipitation,  their  effect  being 
greatly  magnified  by  the  accompanying  conditions  of  heat  and 
wind  movement.  Conversely,  widespread  droughts  have  accom- 
panied a  relatively  small  diminution  in  rain.  A  drought  has 
been  defined  for  purposes  of  study  as  a  period  of  time  during 
which  in  less  than  ten  days  there  has  fallen  0.10  inch  of  rain 
or  less ;  or  in  less  than  20  days,  0.20  inch  or  less ;  or  in  30  days 
not  exceeding  0.30  inch  of  rain. 

Insurance  against  flood  on  the  one  hand  and  against  drought 
on  the  other,  is  among  the  most  important  undertakings  of 
mankind.  The  necessity  of  such  projects  is  now  being  appre- 
ciated as  never  before.  Theoretically  it  should  be  easy  to  hold 


96  WATER  RESOURCES 

over  the  excess  of  water  from  one  time  and  place  for  use  in 
another.  Practically  this  is  extremely  difficult  and  requires 
for  success  the  solution  of  many  engineering  and  social  prob- 
lems, as  will  be  discussed  on  later  pages.  The  storage  of  water 
in  large  quantities  is  not  always  practicable ;  for  safety  against 
flood  damage  there  must  usually  be  joined 'some  form  of  protec- 
tive work  as  distinguished  from  the  preventive  effects  dependent 
solely  upon  holding  back  the  floods  in  reservoirs.  This  subject 
is  discussed  on  page  272  under  the  head  of  river  regulation. 

During  floods  most  of  the  work  done  by  rivers  is  accom- 
plished. At  that  time  the  erosive  effect  is  greatly  increased. 
Vast  quantities  of  silt,  sand,  and  gravel  are  picked  up  and 
deposited  at  more  or  less  distant  points.  The  rapid  increase  in 
volume  of  the  stream  causes  correspondingly  quick  changes  in 
erosion  and  deposition  or  sedimentation.  The  lower  plains 
along  the  river  are  inundated  and  their  level  gradually  built  up 
by  the  sand  or  mud  dropped  by  the  encroaching  water.  As 
these  flood  plains  are  thus  made  of  light  and  fertile  soil,  they 
are  usually  first  occupied  by  the  pioneers  in  a  new  country  and 
later  are  thickly  built  upon  by  the  inhabitants.  The  occa- 
sional flood  waters,  and  especially  those  of  unusual  floods 
spreading  over  their  old  playgrounds,  thus  become  highly  de- 
structive to  the  community  which  has  taken  possession. 

As  the  result  of  the  great  losses  of  life  and  property  due  to 
floods  on  these  lowlands,  various  investigations  have  been  made 
to  ascertain  how  best  to  meet  future  dangers.  The  most  notable 
of  these  studies  and  the  ones  which  have  led  to  early  action, 
are  those  which  followed  the  March,  1913,  flood  in  the  Miami 
River  of  Ohio.  This  river  and  its  tributaries  became  filled  to 
overflowing  by  what  may  be  termed  an  accidental  coincidence 
during  five  days  of  not  very  extraordinary  rains.  The  waters 
spread  out  over  the  river  bottoms,  which  had  been  gradually 
built  upon  and  occupied  in  large  part  by  towns,  factories  and 
railroads.  The  loss  of  life  directly  and  indirectly  was  over  400 
and  the  destruction  of  property  exceeded  $60,000,000.  The 
larger  cities  damaged  were  Dayton,  Hamilton,  and  Piqua.  A 
study  of  the  situation  was  at  once  undertaken  and  under  an  act 
passed  by  the  Ohio  Legislature,  the  Miami  Conservancy  Dis- 


RUN-OFF  97 

trict  was  organized.1  Work  has  been  begun  on  six  large  deten- 
tion reservoirs,  the  capacity  of  which  is  sufficient  to  hold  back 
a  large  portion  of  the  flood  flow,  enough  to  prevent  the  waters 
from  breaking  over  the  protecting  works  built  through  the 
principal  cities. 

The  city  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  also  suffered  from  floods,  which 
began  on  March  24,  1913,  during  which  nearly  100  lives  were 
lost,  suffering  was  brought  to  20,000  persons,  and  property 
destroyed  valued  at  over  $5,000,000.2  The  city  authorities, 
after  having  had  reports  prepared  on  various  schemes  of  relief, 
have  concluded  that  the  cost  of  establishing  reservoirs  on  the 
Scioto  and  Olentangy  rivers  would  be  too  great  and  have  there- 
fore confined  their  efforts  to  the  straightening  and  deepening 
of  the  river  channel  and  to  the  building  of  protective  works 
through  the  city. 

The  floods  which  partly  inundated  the  city  of  Pittsburgh 
during  the  period  from  March  15,  1907,  to  March  20,  1908, 
caused  losses3  estimated  at  over  $6,000,000.  A  flood  com- 
mission was  organized  in  1908,  extensive  investigations  were  at 
once  begun  and  carried  on  by  means  of  an  expenditure  of  up- 
wards of  $100,000.  These  have  resulted  in  a  remarkably  com- 
plete report,  which  goes  into  methods  of  flood  prevention  and 
control,  also  recommends  the  building  of  large  reservoirs  on 
the  headwaters  of  Allegheny  River.  Little  has  apparently  come 
out  of  this  report,  other  than  a  better  comprehension  of  the 
whole  subject. 

EROSION.  During  a  downpour,  the  raindrops  as  they  strike 
the  earth  loosen  the  particles  of  soil  and  in  a  heavy  shower  even 
move  pebbles.  A  very  small  part  of  the  soil  enters  into  solu- 
tion in  the  pure  rain  water,  but  a  larger  portion  is  mechanically 
held  in  suspension  by  the  water  as  it  flows  off  in  muddy  rills. 
As  these  rills  unite  in  swiftly  moving  torrents,  they  push  and 
roll  along  larger  particles,  carrying  them  into  creeks  and  rivers. 

1  Morgan,  Arthur  E.,  "Report  of  the  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Miami  Con- 
servancy District,"   1916. 

2  Alvord,  John  W.,  and  Burdick,  Chas.  B.,  on  "Flood  Protection,"  1913, 
and  "Flood  Relief,"  1916. 

3  Pittsburgh    Flood   Commission,   Report,   1911,   pp.   253;   appendix,  452. 
Illustrated  with  diagrams,  maps,  and  views. 


98  WATER  RESOURCES 

Thus,  following  the  rainstorm,  we  have  not  only  an  increase  in 
the  volume  of  flow  but  a  muddied  condition  of  water  which  testi- 
fies to  the  movement  of  earth  material.  As  the  water  in  the 
stream  subsides  it  tends  to  become  clearer  and  there  are  left 
along  the  streams  many  low  beds  or  bars  of  sand  or  silt  showing 
that  the  river  water,  with  its  diminished  volume  and  lessened 
velocity,  was  not  able  to  carry  away  all  that  it  had  picked  up. 

Observation  reveals  the  fact  that  the  power  of  water  to  erode 
and  carry  away  small  particles  does  not  vary  directly  as  its 
velocity.  That  is  to  say,  a  stream  flowing  twice  as  rapidly  is 
not  limited  to  twice  as  much  material,  but  on  the  contrary,  when 
the  velocity  is  doubled  there  may  be  thirty  or  forty  times  as 
much  solid  matter  held  in  suspension.  Thus  a  slight  change 
in  the  velocity  of  the  flowing  water  makes  a  great  difference  as 
regards  the  load  it  can  handle.  While  the  water  on  one  side  of 
the  stream  may  be  cutting  into  the  overhanging  bank,  on  the 
opposite  side,  where  it  is  moving  more  slowly,  it  may  be  drop- 
ping some  of  the  load  it  picked  up  a  few  hundred  yards  above. 

Studies  have  been  made  of  the  behavior  of  water  in  this  regard. 
Perhaps  the  most  elaborate  have  been  those  of  G.  K.  Gilbert 
on  "The  Transportation  of  Debris  by  Running  Water,"  pub- 
lished by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  in  1914.  Mr, 
Gilbert  built  small  flumes,  some  with  glass  sides,  in  which  he 
could  observe  and  measure  the  erosive  action  of  streams  of 
water  of  known  velocity.  He  fed  into  this  water  particles  of 
determined  size  and  noted  the  behavior  of  these,  feeding  each 
stream  until  it  became  clogged.  He  found  that  the  load  travels 
less  rapidly  than  the  current  and  that  a  mixture  of  coarse  and 
fine  particles  can  be  more  readily  transported  than  those  of 
single  size  alone.  The  tentative  conclusions  concerning  the 
laws  governing  the  movement  are  found  to  be  conflicting  but 
the  old  rule  that  the  quantity  varies  as  the  sixth  power  of 
velocity  was  discovered  to  pertain  not  to  the  quantity  of  mate- 
rial but  rather  to  the  maximum  size  of  the  pebbles. 

The  prevention  of  erosion  involves  many  problems  of  hydrau- 
lics and  reaches  out  into  various  fields  of  engineering.  Begin- 
ning with  the  uplands  of  a  river  basin,  as  stated  on  the  previous 
page,  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  preserve  a  suitable  cover- 


RUN-OFF  99 

ing  of  vegetation  on  the  soils  which  are  easily  eroded.  Pro- 
ceeding down  the  watercourses,  it  becomes  necessary  to  protect 
the  banks  from  being  worn  away  at  points  where  the  velocity 
is  greatest.  For  this  purpose  stone  is  used  wherever  possible, 
but  in  many  localities  it  is  not  practicable  to  obtain  suitable 
rock.  Here  the  protection  of  the  banks  from  erosion  is  achieved 
largely  by  ingenious  methods  of  placing  and  holding  the  brush 
or  small  trees  which  usually  grow  in  the  vicinity.  An  illustra- 
tion of  one  of  the  methods  of  protecting  soft  banks  from  erosion 
is  shown  in  Plate  IV.  C,  consisting  of  wing  dams  of  brush  built 
to  extend  out  from  the  levees  along  Colorado  River  below  Yuma, 
Ariz. 

The  use  of  brush  in  the  form  shown  in  the  illustration  or 
woven  into  mattresses  has  been  brought  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection;  willows,  cottonwoods,  and  other  small  trees  have 
been  utilized  to  a  degree  such  that  the  material  for  building 
the  mattresses  has  been  largely  consumed  and  it  is  becoming 
quite  difficult  and  expensive  to  secure  an  adequate  supply. 
Under  these  conditions  a  substitute  has  been  sought  in  the  appli- 
cation of  concrete.  (Engineering  News,  December  7,  1916,  p. 
1094.)  There  is  need  of  continued  study  and  research — to  be 
followed  by  the  use  of  inventive  genius — into  the  factors  which 
control  the  erosion  and  transportation  of  earth  or  rock  parti- 
cles and  into  the  mechanical  devices  for  economically  maintain- 
ing the  banks  of  the  rivers  subject  to  destructive  floods. 

SEDIMENTATION.  The  deposit  of  sediment  which  has  been 
eroded  from  the  land  higher  up  on  the  stream  may  be  a  benefit 
or  an  injury.  Primarily,  nearly  all  of  the  rich  lowlands  have 
been  formed  in  this  way.  Along  the  rivers  of  antiquity,  the 
Nile  and  the  Euphrates,  all  agriculture  and  even  civilization 
itself  came  from  these  river  deposits.  After  a  flood  subsides  the 
slime  or  sand  left  on  the  flood  plain  utilized  for  farms  or  other 
industries  is  apt,  in  a  humid  country,  to  be  more  of  a  detriment 
or  nuisance  than  a  benefit.  There  are  conditions,  even  here, 
however,  when  sedimentation  can  be  turned  to  useful  ends.  By 
controlling  the  access  of  muddy  water  to  low-lying  lands  it  has 
been  found  possible,  for  example,  in  England  to  build  up  the 


100  WATER  RESOURCES 

level  of  the  land  by  a  process  known  as  "warping"  and  to  pro- 
duce fields  of  great  fertility. 

Another  practical  use  of  the  silt  carried  by  rapidly  flowing 
water  is  in  vogue  in  the  arid  region.  There  where  canals  and 
ditches  have  been  built  for  many  miles  through  sandy  soils, 
much  of  the  water,  if  clear,  is  lost  in  transit  during  the  first 
few  months  or  seasons  after  the  canal  is  dug  because  of  the 
rapid  percolation  into  the  porous  bed  of  the  canal.  The  water 
thus  disappearing  may  later  reappear  in  the  form  of  seepage  to 
the  injury  of  low-lying  farm  lands.  To  prevent  such  seepage, 
efforts  are  made  to  seal  up  the  bottom  of  the  canals  by  bringing 
in  muddy  water  or  by  making  muddy  the  natural  clear  water  by 
the  addition  of  clay.  Such  an  effort  is  shown  in  PL  IV.  D, 
where  silt  is  being  added  to  the  clear  water  of  canals  taken  from 
Snake  River.  This  is  being  conducted  through  many  miles  of 
canals  built  in  the  sandy  Minidoka  Project  in  southern  Idaho. 
The  losses  from  these  canals  have  been  a  serious  matter  in  that 
the  water  is  not  only  needed  elsewhere  but,  escaping  from  the 
canals,  has  ruined  many  otherwise  good  agricultural  lands. 

As  shown  in  the  view,  the  muddy  water  is  being  brought  in  a 
flume  from  which  it  spills  into  the  clear  water  of  the  canal  and 
is  swept  along  downstream.  The  particles  slowly  settle  to  the 
bottom  of  the  canal,  forming  a  thin  coating  of  slime,  and  grad- 
ually work  their  way  between  the  sand  particles,  plugging  up 
the  pores  and  reducing  the  water  loss.  (See  also  page  218.) 
The  success  attained  here  should  stimulate  additional  research 
into  the  law  governing  such  phenomena. 

DEBRIS  PROBLEMS.  In  certain  portions  of  the  country  there 
are  special  problems  closely  connected  with  erosion  and  sedi- 
mentation following  flood  conditions.  In  particular,  in  Califor- 
nia, the  debris  which  has  resulted  from  hydraulic  mining  has 
introduced  situations  peculiarly  difficult.  Here  man  in  his 
efforts  to  secure  gold  has  disturbed  the  otherwise  stable  condi- 
tions and  has  initiated  changes  which  have  led  to  widespread 
injury.  The  ancient  sands  and  gravels  in  the  upper  mountain 
valleys  which  have  remained  in  place  for  ages  have  been  moved 
by  the  hydraulic  "giants"  of  the  miners  and  left  in  such  posi- 
tion that  the  occasional  floods  are  able  to  sweep  them  down  over 


RUN-OFF  101 

the  lowlands,  choking  up  the  streams  and  encroaching  upon 
thousands  of  acres  of  land  formerly  valuable  for  agriculture. 
Here  is  thus  presented  an  important  series  of  questions  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  development  of  the  waters  and  other 
mineral  resources  of  the  country.  The  research  conducted  by 
Dr.  G.  K.  Gilbert,  noted  on  page  98,  was  undertaken  largely 
with  a  view  to  aiding  in  the  solution  of  some  of  these  engineering 
problems,  where  the  economical  conduct  of  one  operation — that 
of  mining — has  resulted  in  great  losses  to  agriculture.  By 
obtaining  more  complete  knowledge  it  is  possible  that  a  satis- 
factory adjustment  may  be  worked  out. 

VARYING  QUANTITIES.  The  measurement  of  the  amount  of 
water  which  flows  in  the  principal  streams  and  the  resulting 
data  form  the  foundation  upon  which  are  based  most  of  the 
plans  and  estimates  for  investment  of  public  or  private  funds 
in  projects  for  irrigation,  drainage,  hydraulic  power  and  river 
control.  The  quantity  available  for  use  for  storage  fluctuates 
greatly  from  day  to  day  and  from  season  to  season.  The  engi- 
neer in  preparing  his  plans  must  act  the  part  of  a  prophet;  he 
must  anticipate  conditions  which  will  exist  not  merely  tomorrow 
but  next  year  and  for  many  years.  The  question  is  as  to  how 
he  can  safely  make  these  long-range  predictions. 

The  permanence  of  natural  phenomena  is  the  foundation  on 
which  the  engineer  builds.  He  assumes  not  only  that  the  sea- 
sons will  follow  in  order  as  they  have  always  done,  but  that  the 
supplies  of  water  will  fluctuate  about  as  they  have  in  the  past 
and  within  about  the  same  limits.  This  being  the  case,  the 
obvious  thing  to  be  done  is  to  ascertain,  if  practicable,  what  has 
happened  in  the  past,  what  is  taking  place  now,  and  especially 
what  are  the  limits  of  quantity  of  flow  of  the  streams  at  different 
times  and  places.  The  more  complete  is  this  knowledge  of  past 
and  present  stream  behavior,  the  stronger  may  be  our  reliance 
upon  the  anticipation  for  the  future. 

It  has  been  shown  on  previous  pages  that  the  amount  of  water 
running  off  the  land  is  the  resultant  of  many  forces  each  acting 
more  or  less  independently.  We  can  imagine  an  extraordinarily 
heavy  rain  culminating  in  a  series  of  great  storms,  in  which  all 
of  the  natural  conditions  for  producing  a  flood  are  at  their 


102  WATER  RESOURCES 

maximum.  Such  conditions  may  appear  once  in  twenty  years 
or  once  in  a  century,  but  the  probabilities  of  their  occurring  in 
any  one  year  are  small.  On  the  other  hand,  we  can  take  the 
mimimum  condition  of  rainfall  with  maximum  wind  movement 
and  temperature  occurring  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  extraor- 
dinary droughts.  The  probabilities  also  of  these  occurring  in 
any  one  season  are  small.  If  we  have  records  for  a  century  or 
even  for  several  centuries  and  find  that  neither  of  the  theoreti- 
cal extremes  has  been  reached,  we  are  reasonably  safe  in  limit- 
ing our  computations  to  what  has  actually  occurred.  More 
than  this,  it  has  become  apparent  through  studies  of  the  few 
available  long  records  that  the  extremes  of  flood  and  drought 
are  usually  to  be  found  in  a  period  of  less  than  fifty  years. 
When  still  shorter  periods  are  taken,  howrever,  there  can  be 
less  and  less  confidence  in  using  these  as  giving  the  limiting 
conditions  in  our  estimates  for  the  future. 

DATA  AVAILABLE.  It  is  obviously  not  practicable  to  wait  for 
half  a  century  or  even  for  a  decade  to  obtain  data  on  river  flow 
in  order  to  prepare  computations  for  projects  of  hydraulic 
power  or  for  works  for  conservation  of  water  by  storage.  If 
these  are  to  be  built  for  municipal  supply,  for  irrigation,  or  for 
industrial  development,  it  is  usually  necessary  that  work  be 
begun  within  a  few  months  from  the  time  it  is  actually  deter- 
mined upon.  The  moment  it  becomes  evident  that  such  enter- 
prise is  practicable,  steps  should  be  taken  to  make  measurements 
of  the  flow  of  the  streams  which  are  to  be  utilized,  ascertaining 
first  what  observations  may  have  already  been  made,  prepara- 
tory to  supplementing  these. 

Fortunately  certain  governmental  agencies,  national  and 
state,  directed  by  men  of  wide  vision,  have  anticipated  some  of 
these  future  needs  and  have  entered  upon  research  designed  to 
meet  the  demands  which  are  likely  to  be  made  as  the  resources 
of  the  country  are  developed.  The  most  notable  of  these  under- 
takings has  been  that  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey, 
initiated  under  Major  John  W.  Powell,  which  began  in  1888  to 
ascertain  the  extent  to  which  the  arid  regions  might  be  reclaimed. 
In  this  wrork  has  been  included  the  preparation  of  topographic 
maps  of  the  catchment  basins  of  the  streams  and  also  of  prob- 


RUN-OFF  103 

able  reservoir  sites,  as  well  as  of  measurements  of  the  streams. 
This  latter  research  into  water  supply  was  extended  to  the 
eastern  states  to  furnish  data  needed  in  considering  possible 
water  power  development,  river  control,  drainage  and  other 
needs.  Cooperation  in  these  investigations  has  been  had  with 
other  bureaus  of  the  government  and  with  some  of  the  states,  so 
that  there  are  now  available  data  concerning  many  of  the  impor- 
tant streams.  The  facts  at  hand,  however,  are  by  no  means 
adequate  to  answer  all  of  the  questions  which  occur  to  the  engi- 
neer, investor,  or  man  interested  in  public  affairs.  There  is 
need  of  extending  these  studies  and  of  taking  up  even  more 
thorough  research  in  connection  with  special  problems. 

When  the  systematic  work  of  stream  measurement  was  initi- 
ated in  1888  there  were  few  instruments  for  river  measurement 
and  no  general  understanding  as  to  the  kind  of  facts  to  be  col- 
lected or  the  way  in  which  these  should  be  preserved  and  pre- 
sented. In  the  thirty  years  which  have  elapsed  there  have  been 
developed  certain  more  or  less  arbitrary  ways  of  procedure, 
these  having  been  modified  from  time  to  time  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  engineers.1 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  data  most  readily  obtained  and 
which  have  greatest  value  are  those  as  to  the  amount  of  water 
which  passes  a  certain  selected  point  near  which  the  water  is  to 
be  used  or  stored.  The  choice  of  point  of  measurement  is  gov- 
erned not  only  by  the  use  to  which  the  facts  are  to  be  put,  but 
also  by  the  surrounding  conditions  which  affect  the  accuracy  of 
the  result.  Often  it  happens  that  because  of  obstruction  in  the 
stream,  measurements  cannot  be  made  at  the  desired  point  and 
can  be  satisfactorily  had  only  at  locations  some  distance  above 
or  below. 

Computations  of  the  flow  of  a  stream  and  of  its  diurnal  or 
seasonal  fluctuations  are  usually  based  on  systematic  observa- 
tions of  the  height  of  the  water.  It  is  generally  assumed  that 
with  increase  of  quantity  the  river  surface  will  rise  and  with 
decrease  it  will  fall.  The  principal  exceptions  to  this  rule  are 
those  which  arise  from  the  gradual  filling  up  or  the  erosion  of 

i  Hoyt,  J.  C.,  and  Grover,  N.  C.,  "River  Discharge,"  several  editions, 
illustrated. 


104  WATER  RESOURCES 

the  bed  of  the  stream  or  by  temporary  obstructions  such  as 
ice  jams.  Also  it  is  assumed  that  as  the  river  rises  it  will  flow 
more  rapidly  and  as  it  goes  down  the  speed  will  decrease.  The 
quantity  or  rate  of  flow  is  determined  by  ascertaining  the  verti- 
cal area  or  cross  section  of  the  stream  taken  at  right  angles 
to  its  line  of  flow  and  by  multiplying  this  area  by  the  speed  with 
which  the  water  passes.  If  the  ordinary  British  units  are  used, 
the  results  of  the  flow  will  be  stated  in  cubic  feet  per  second.  A 
stream  having  a  width  of  100  feet  and  an  average  depth  of  5 
feet  will  have  a  cross  section  of  500  square  feet.  If  the  water 
passes  this  cross  section  at  the  rate  of  2  linear  feet  per  second 
of  time  then  the  stream  will  be  flowing  at  the  rate  of  1,000 
cubic  feet  per  second,  abbreviated  to  second-feet  or  even  to 
cusecs. 

The  cross  section  of  the  stream  can  be  obtained  by  direct 
measurement  of  its  width  by  a  suitable  steel  tape  or  chain  and 
of  its  depth  by  sounding  with  a  pole  or  other  device.  The  ascer- 
taining of  the  velocity  of  flow,  however,  is  not  such  a  simple  mat- 
ter because  of  the  fact  that  the  water  is  not  moving  with  the 
same  velocity  in  the  center  and  at  the  sides,  or  at  the  top  and 
bottom.  It  is  moving  most  swiftly  near  the  center  a  little  below 
the  surface  and  is  nearly  motionless  near  the  sides  or  may  even 
have  a  return  eddy  on  the  margin.  To  make  measurements  of 
discharge,  it  is  evident  that  a  suitable  cross  section  should  be 
chosen  where  the  water,  undisturbed  by  obstacles,  is  moving  as 
quietly  and  in  as  nearly  a  straight  course  as  possible.  Such 
places  are  difficult  to  find  and  usually  choice  must  be  made  of 
the  locality  offering  the  fewest  objectionable  features.  The 
river  channel  usually  offers  an  alternation  of  broad  shallow 
places  where  water  is  rippling  over  the  stones,  which  below  this 
may  be  a  deep  pool  with  more  or  less  dead  water  at  the  bottom. 

UNITS  OF  WATER  MEASUREMENT.  In  discussing  the  quantity 
of  water  which  occurs  in  the  streams  or  which  may  be  held  by 
storage  and  measured  out  for  various  purposes,  different  units 
are  employed.  The  metric  system  is  in  quite  general  use,  but 
unfortunately  in  English-speaking  countries  adherence  is  still 
had  to  the  old  system  of  measurements — the  gallon1  being  habit- 

i  There   are   two    gallons    in    common    use,   the    standard    United    States 


RUN-OFF  105 

ually  employed,  for  example,  in  domestic  and  municipal  supply, 
and  the  cubic  foot  for  other  purposes.  Considering  still  larger 
volumes  of  water,  particularly  in  connection  with  the  irrigation 
of  agricultural  lands,  the  acre-foot  is  employed,  that  is,  the 
quantity  of  water  which  will  cover  one  acre,  or  43,560  square 
feet,  to  a  depth  of  one  foot. 

A  stream  discharging  one  cubic  foot  of  water  per  second  will 
in  the  course  of  a  day  of  24  hours  (60  x  60  x  24)  discharge 
86,400  cubic  feet  or  very  nearly  2  acre-feet  (1.98).  Thus  there 
is  a  convenient  connection  in  that  a  stream  of  this  size  flowing 
continuously  delivers  very  nearly  2  acre-feet  per  day.  The 
cubic  contents  of  a  reservoir,  if  stated  in  acre-feet,  can  be 
readily  converted  to  a  rate  of  flow,  that  is  to  say,  a  reservoir 
containing,  say,  10,000  acre-feet,  if  drawn  down  at  a  steady 
rate  through  100  days,  would  yield  a  flow  of  nearly  50  cubic 
feet  per  second ;  conversely,  a  stream  which  is  flowing  at  a  rate 
of  100  cubic  feet  per  second  through  a  month  of  thirty  days 
will  deliver  6,000  acre-feet. 

In  stating  the  quantity  of  the  flowing  water,  the  cubic  foot 
per  second  has  largely  superseded  the  gallon.  In  estimates  of 
storage  capacity  reservoirs,  or  use  in  city  supply,  the  gallon 
still  survives,  though  when  the  figures  run  into  the  millions,  the 
term  "million-gallon"  has  been  used.  In  the  western  part  of 
the  United  States,  where  the  hydraulic  miners  made  measure- 
ments of  flow  of  water  adapted  to  their  needs,  the  so-called 
"miner's  inch"  was  devised,  this  term  being  perpetuated  by  the 
irrigators,  who  frequently  obtained  water  from  the  old  hydrau- 
lic workings.  The  miner's  inch  is  supposed  to  be  the  continu- 
ous flow  of  water  issuing  from  an  orifice  of  one  square  inch 
section.  This  quantity,  however,  varies  widely  according  to 
the  character  or  thickness  of  the  plank  or  plate  in  which  the 
opening  is  made  and  according  to  the  height  of  water  above  the 

gallon  contains  231  cubic  inches,  or  8.34  pounds  avoirdupois,  of  distilled 
water.  This  is  almost  exactly  equivalent  to  a  cylinder  7  inches  in  diameter 
and  6  inches  in  height.  It  equals  3.78  liters.  The  British  imperial  gallon, 
referred  to  in  English  publications,  contains  10  pounds  of  distilled  water,  or 
277  cubic  inches,  or  4.54  liters,  and  is  almost  exactly  1.2  United  States 
gallons.  The  cubic  foot  contains  7.48  United  States  gallons.  A  cubic  foot 
of  pure  water  weighs  64.2  pounds  and  contains  28.3  liters. 


106  WATER  RESOURCES 

opening.  Thus  the  miner's  inch,  while  convenient  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  is  an  uncertain  quantity;  it  has  been  defined 
in  some  of  the  western  states  as  a  fiftieth  part  of  a  cubic  foot 
per  second,  in  other  states  as  a  fortieth  part.1 

STATION  EQUIPMENT.  As  soon  as  a  location  for  river  meas- 
urement has  been  selected  and  a  temporary  or  permanent  gage 
has  been  established,  the  next  step  to  be  taken  toward  making 
systematic  measurements  is  to  properly  equip  the  locality  for 
convenience  in  handling  the  apparatus  which  may  be  used. 
There  are  various  methods  of  making  the  measurements  and 
upon  the  selection  of  one  or  another  of  the  methods  depend  the 
character  of  the  equipment  and  the  accuracy  of  the  result.  As 
a  rule,  however,  the  current  meter  is  generally  employed,  al- 
though occasionally  surface  or  submerged  floats  are  used.  In 
handling  the  current  meter  the  operations  may  be  performed 
by  wading  into  the  stream,  if  small,  or  by  holding  it  from  a  boat 
or  bridge.  Boats,  however,  are  often  dangerous  in  high  water 
and  bridges  not  always  conveniently  located,  so  that  recourse  is 
had  to  a  cable  suspended  across  the  stream,  from  which  can 
be  hung  a  small  box  or  car  in  which  the  hydrographer  can  sit. 

The  height  of  the  water  is  ascertained  by  reading  some  form 
of  gage  of  which  there  are  many  kinds ;  the  most  common  being 
a  vertical  post  marked  to  feet  and  tenths  or  a  scale  attached 
to  a  bridge  pier.  Where  the  shores  are  sloping,  it  has  been 
found  most  convenient  to  have  an  inclined  gage  following  the 
slope  of  the  bank.  Other  schemes  are  also  in  use ;  in  some  cases 
a  weight  is  lowered  from  a  bridge  until  it  touches  the  surface  of 
the  water  and  the  distance  is  read  downward  from  some  fixed 
point.  Occasionally  a  well  or  pit  is  dug  near  the  river  and  con- 
nected with  it  by  a  horizontal  pipe  below  low  water  level  so  that 
the  water  will  rise  and  fall  in  the  well  with  that  in  the  river. 

There  are  various  types  of  automatically  recording  gages, 
many  of  these  dependent  upon  the  movement  of  a  float  in  such 
a  well  connected  with  the  river.  As  the  float  rises  or  falls  it 
causes  a  pencil  or  pen  to  move  across  a  sheet  or  dial  driven  by  a 
clock  so  that  the  time  and  amount  of  movement  can  be  readily 

i  Hoyt,  John  C.,  and  Grover,  N.  C.,  "River  Discharge,"  John  Wiley  & 
Sons,  New  York,  various  editions,  illustrated. 


Plate  V.  A. 
Measuring  flow  of  water  in  Ironstone  Canal,  near  Montrose,  Colorado. 


Plate  V.  B. 

Weir  for  measuring  water  in  one  of  the  canals  of  the  Williston  Project, 

North  Dakota. 


Plate  V.  C. 

A   plains   reservoir  site,  that  utilized   for  the  Cold   Springs    Reservoir  of 
the  Umatilla  Project,  Oregon. 


Plate  V.  D. 

A  reservoir  built  on  the  plains  or  open  valley  lands,  because  of  lack  of 
adequate  natural  storage  sites  in  the  mountains.  Deer  Flat  Reservoir, 
Boise  Project,  Idaho. 


RUN-OFF  107 

seen.  On  many  streams  there  is  a  distinct  diurnal  fluctuation  in 
the  quantity,  noted  by  the  self-recording  gage,  but  often  over- 
looked by  the  ordinary  observer. 

There  are  usually  few  people  residing  near  the  point  where 
it  is  desired  to  make  measurements  of  river  flow  for  purposes 
of  water  storage,  as  these  places  are  mainly  in  or  near  high 
mountains.  It  is  thus  frequently  a  matter  of  considerable  diffi- 
culty to  secure  systematic  and  reliable  readings  at  reasonable 
cost.  Many  of  the  observers  become  careless  and  some  have 
been  known  to  write  up  the  book  at  the  end  of  the  week.  To 
guard  against  this  it  is  desirable  to  have  an  inspector  visit  the 
locality  at  irregular  intervals.  Frequently  it  becomes  necessary 
to  abandon  a  point  because  of  the  unreliability  of  gage  readers, 
or  where  it  is  too  expensive  to  install  automatic  devices. 

DISCHARGE  MEASUREMENTS.  The  most  simple  method  of 
ascertaining  the  rate  of  flow  of  a  stream  is  by  observing  the 
speed  with  which  some  floating  object  passes  downstream.  For 
example,  a  course  along  the  side  of  the  stream  may  be  laid  off 
with  a  length  of  100  feet.  The  time  of  passage  of  a  floating 
log  may  be  taken  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  end  of  measured 
course.  Smaller  pieces  of  wood  or  metallic  floats  may  be  used 
for  this  purpose,  being  placed  at  different  distances  across  the 
stream  so  as  to  obtain  the  velocity  near  the  sides  as  well  as 
near  the  center.  Inasmuch  as  the  surface  has  greater  velocity 
than  the  lower  portion  of  the  water,  the  average  speed  can  be 
better  determined  by  causing  the  floats  to  ride  upright  in  the 
water  by  loading  one  end  until  it  sinks  nearly  to  the  bottom. 
These  vertical  floats,  if  well  placed,  give  nearly  the  average 
speed  of  the  stream. 

To  obtain  more  accurate  facts  as  to  the  velocity  at  all  points, 
it  is  desirable  to  have  an  instrument  which  can  be  placed  in 
any  part  of  the  current.  Such  a  device  is  shown  in  PL  V.  A, 
this  being  one  of  the  current  meters  in  use  by  the  Water  Re- 
source Branch  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  and  also 
by  the  United  States  Reclamation  Service.  This  consists  of  a 
revolving  head  or  wheel  held  in  such  a  way  as  to  turn  in  the 
moving  water.  The  greater  the  speed  of  water  the  more  rapid 
the  revolutions  of  the  wheel. 


108  WATER  RESOURCES 

The  current  meter  can  be  used  in  a  number  of  ways.  For 
example,  it  can  be  held  at  points  systematically  located  across 
the  stream  near  the  bottom,  center  and  top.  From  the  average 
of  these  readings  the  mean  velocity  may  be  determined.  The 
method  of  use  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  size  of  the 
river  and  the  device  employed  for  getting  at  the  stream.  In 
very  small  streams  it  is  possible  to  wade  out  in  them  and  hold 
the  meter  in  the  desired  location.  On  larger  streams  if  there  is 
a  small  bridge  conveniently  located,  as  shown  in  PL  V.  A,  it  is 
possible  to  locate  the  meter  wherever  desired  and  to  move  it 
from  side  to  side  as  well  as  up  and  down.  In  working  from  a 
car  or  box  suspended  from  a  cable,  it  is  less  convenient  to  move 
sideways  and  so  the  method  employed  is  usually  to  measure  the 
velocity  of  several  vertical  sections  and  to  compute  the  dis- 
charge of  each  independently  of  the  others. 

The  engineer  in  charge  of  the  work  visits  the  locality  at 
intervals  of  a  few  weeks,  checks  up  the  daily  record  made  by 
the  observer,  verifies  some  of  the  readings  and  makes  a  measure- 
ment of  the  discharge  to  ascertain  whether  the  relation  as  pre- 
viously established  between  the  quantity  of  flow  and  gage  height 
remains  unchanged.  If  there  is  a  marked  discrepancy  then  a 
new  rating  table  must  be  made. 

The  record  of  daily  observations  of  height  of  water  is  usually 
so  prepared  that  the  equivalent  discharge  can  be  entered  upon 
it.  This  quantity  is  obtained  from  the  rating  table  prepared 
from  the  occasional  measurements  of  flow.  Such  record  for 
each  day  in  the  month  or  year  enables  a  study  to  be  made  of  the 
maximum,  minimum  and  average  discharge. 

Wherever  practicable  to  do  so,  installation  is  made  of  other 
permanent  measuring  devices.  With  some  of  these  it  is  usually 
possible  to  obtain  more  accurate  results  than  through  the  occa- 
sional current  meter  measurements  which  supplement  the  obser- 
vations of  river  height.  Where  the  stream  is  small  the  entire 
flow  can  be  put  through  a  carefully  constructed  module  or  over 
a  weir  such  as  is  shown  in  PI.  V.  B,  installed  on  one  of  the  dis- 
tributing canals  of  an  irrigation  system.  For  accuracy  they 
should  be  constructed  in  form  similar  to  those  for  which  experi- 
mental data  are  available.  Large  weirs  may  be  constructed 


RUN-OFF  109 

across  streams  of  considerable  size  and  automatic  devices 
installed  for  recording  the  height  of  water  on  these  weirs,  thus 
giving  continuous  record  of  flow. 

Other  methods  of  measuring  flowing  water  have  been  devised, 
such  as  the  Venturi1  meter  invented  by  Clemens  Herschel,  or 
the  Pitot  tube.  Colors  have  also  been  employed  and  observa- 
tions made  by  the  eye  as  to  the  length  of  time  required  for  a  few 
drops  of  coloring  fluid  to  reach  a  given  point.  (See  Engineer- 
ing News,  September  23,  1915,  p.  617.)  Chemical  methods  have 
been  successfully  tried  using  salt,  a  suitable  amount  of  which  is 
injected  into  the  water,  tests  being  made  from  time  to  time  of 
the  effluent.  The  speed  of  flow  is  thus  found  by  direct  observa- 
tions. Indirect  methods  are  also  employed  as,  for  example,  by 
comparing  the  strength  of  a  salt  solution  flowing  into  the  stream 
at  a  certain  rate  with  the  degree  of  salinity  of  the  stream  as 
shown  by  samples  taken  at  a  lower  point. 

The  velocity  with  which  the  stream  flows  is  also  computed  in 
less  obvious  fashion  by  using  somewhat  empirical  formulae  based 
on  measurements  of  the  slope  or  fall  of  the  surface  of  the  flow- 
ing water.  The  simplest  of  these  formulae  is  that  of  Chezy,  pub- 
lished in  1775.  In  this  the  velocity  is  stated  as  the  product  of 
a  constant,  C,  multiplied  into  the  square  root  of  the  product  of 
the  figures  representing  the  slope  times  the  figures  expressing 
the  shape  of  the  channel  or  V=CVRS. 

The  Chezy  formula  was  developed  by  Kutter  and  others  into 
a  somewhat  complicated  form  in  which  the  factor  of  roughness 
of  the  bed  of  the  stream  has  been  expressed  by  the  letter  n. 
Vrarious  values  have  been  found  for  n  and  these,  when  inserted  in 
the  formulae  have  enabled  a  close  approximation  at  the  veloc- 
ity and  consequently  the  discharge  of  the  stream.  For  example, 
in  a  smooth,  cement-lined  canal  such  as  is  shown  in  PL  XII.  A, 
the  value  of  n  is  as  low  as  0.01,  while  for  a  clean  earth  canal  it 
may  be  0.02  and  so  on  up,  depending  upon  the  fact  as  to  whether 
the  natural  channel  is  cut  in  sand,  gravel,  or  bowlders. 

There  is  need  of  continued  research  and  exercise  of  ingenuity 
in  perfecting  these  methods  for  quick  and  fairly  accurate  meth- 
ods of  ascertaining  the  flow  of  water  under  the  various  condi- 

i  Merriman,  Mansfield,  "Treatise  on  Hydraulics,"  1912,  p.  89. 


110  WATER  RESOURCES 

tions  which  are  encountered  in  the  investigation  of  the  water 
resources  of  the  country.  Many  plans  for  future  use  of  the 
water  are  dependent  upon  the  obtaining  of  such  data ;  in  turn 
these  rest  upon  the  ability  of  the  engineer  to  achieve  the  desired 
results  economically. 

FLUCTUATING  FLOW.  In  projects  for  larger  use  or  develop- 
ment of  water  resources,  especially  by  storage  in  reservoirs,  it 
is  of  great  importance  to  study  in  advance  as  completely  as 
possible  the  time  and  quantity  of  the  fluctuation  of  flow  of 
natural  streams  upon  which  dependence  is  placed.  It  is  found, 
as  a  rule,  that  these  changes  are  of  many  kinds ;  for  example, 
there  is  a  diurnal  wave,  in  streams  coming  from  the  high  moun- 
tains, when  the  warm  sunlight  of  the  day  melts  the  snow  and 
causes  an  increase  in  discharge  with  corresponding  check  dur- 
ing the  cool  night.  The  effect  of  the  heat  of  one  day  may  give 
rise  to  a  maximum  flow,  possibly  at  midnight  or  early  morning 
of  the  next  day,  at  some  point  lower  down  the  stream.  There  is 
also  the  variation  in  quantity  from  day  to  day,  resulting  from 
the  constant  changes  in  temperature,  wind  movement,  and  pre- 
cipitation.1 

More  important  is  the  seasonal  change;  the  streams  usually 
have  a  flood  stage  in  the  spring  and  decrease  to  a  minimum  in 
August  or  September.  Each  year  also  shows  a  marked  differ- 
ence from  that  of  the  preceding,  so  that  in  any  study  of  the 
behavior  of  streams  it  is  necessary  to  have  observations  con- 
tinued through  a  long  period  of  time.  It  is  probable  that  in  the 
course  of  forty  or  fifty  years  most  of  the  peculiarities  of  any 
given  stream  will  be  developed,  unless  radical  changes  are  made 
on  the  watershed  by  cutting  the  trees  or  by  cultivation. 

There  is  a  notable  difference  in  the  behavior  of  rivers  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country.  Those  of  the  humid  east,  with 
rainfall  fairly  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the  year,  are 
not  subject  to  fluctuations  relatively  as  great  as  those  in  the 
arid  west,  where  the  spring  flood  may  be  succeeded  by  complete 
drought.  (See  page  94.) 

RANGE    or   FLUCTUATION.      Computations    of   run-off  when 

i  See  "River  Discharge,"  by  Hoyt  and  Grover,  4th  edition,  Figs.  37 
and  38. 


RUN-OFF  111 

stated  in  tabular  form  by  days,  months,  and  years,  permit  com- 
parison to  be  made  and  conclusions  to  be  drawn  concerning 
streams  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  streams  issuing 
from  the  high  summits  of  the  western  mountains  are  quite  simi- 
lar in  character  to  the  rivers  of  the  humid  region  because  of  the 
fact  that  these  mountains,  rising  to  great  height,  receive  a  rela- 
tively large  precipitation,  and  the  hill  slopes,  covered  often 
with  forests,  are  more  humid  than  the  surrounding  country.  In 
their  lower  reaches,  however,  the  western  rivers  take  on  a  dif- 
ferent character  and  the  waters  coming  from  the  hills  may  dis- 
appear into  the  broad  sandy  beds  during  the  extreme  heat  of 
summer.  Thus  the  fluctuations  of  these  streams  at  lower  points 
may  be  from  zero  almost  to  infinity,  in  that  an  extraordinary 
cloudburst  may  send  down  such  quantities  of  water  as  to  com- 
pletely overflow  the  banks  and  drown  the  adjacent  country. 

In  the  case  of  rivers  of  a  humid  region  there  is  a  more  steady 
flow.  Their  beds  rarely,  if  ever,  become  completely  dry,  but 
their  flow  continues  until  it  finally  reaches  the  ocean.  Thus  the 
minimum  is  considerably  above  zero  and  the  maximum,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  rarely  as  high  as  in  the  case  of  the  erratic  streams 
of  the  West.  Because  of  this  small  range  of  flow,  the  waters 
as  a  whole  are  clearer  as  there  is  less  violent  attack  on  the  beds 
and  banks,  such  as  characterizes  the  sudden  floods  of  the  arid 
region.  The  water  of  eastern  streams,  as  a  rule,  is  considerably 
softer  than  that  of  the  western  and  is  more  nearly  free  from  the 
so-called  alkali  which  plays  such  a  large  part  in  problems  of 
conservation  in  dryer  areas. 

Because  of  the  fact  that  the  natural  or  unregulated  streams 
fluctuate  thus  widely,  it  is  desirable  to  ascertain  the  range  of 
these  fluctuations  for  various  periods  of  time,  such  as  the  day, 
month  or  year.  The  regular  diurnal  changes  as  described  on 
page  110  are  usually  small,  but  regular.  The  monthly  range 
may  be  quite  considerable.  It  is  usual  to  state  the  maximum 
and  minimum  quantities  which  occur  on  any  one  day  or  shorter 
period  of  time  in  each  month,  and  also  to  average  the  figures  for 
the  entire  month,  giving  the  rate  of  flow  in  terms  of  cubic  feet 
per  second. 

It  is  also  desirable  to  compare  the  quantity  of  water  deliv- 


112  WATER  RESOURCES 

ered  during  a  month  with  the  area  of  country  from  which  the 
water  is  derived,  or  in  other  words,  to  divide  the  average  run- 
off for  the  month  by  the  number  of  square  miles  drained.  This 
gives  a  method  of  comparing  one  drainage  area  with  another. 
From  a  mountainous  area  the  run-off  per  square  mile  may  be 
from  5  to  20  cubic  feet  per  second  per  square  mile.  Going 
downstream,  however,  and  including  larger  and  larger  catch- 
ment areas  or  more  nearly  flat  land  on  which  the  rainfall  is  less, 
the  proportion  rapidly  decreases  until  near  the  mouth  of  the 
river  the  run-off  per  square  mile  drained  may  be  a  tenth  of  the 
rate  found  above.  (See  also  page  94.) 

DEPTH  OF  RUN-OFF.  For  certain  purposes  it  is  also  con- 
venient to  compare  the  run-off  during  various  years  from  cer- 
tain drainage  areas  in  terms  of  depth  over  the  area.  For  exam- 
ple, from  the  tributary  to  a  given  reservoir,  the  amount  of 
water  which  flows  into  the  reservoir  may  be  stated  in  depth  in 
inches  and  thus  be  compared  directly  with  the  depth  of  rainfall. 
The  rain  gages  may  show  during  a  given  month  that  3  inches  of 
rain  fell.  The  run-off  received  in  the  reservoir  or  the  amount 
which  flowed  in  the  stream,  if  all  caught  and  put  back  in  the 
catchment  basin,  would  perhaps  cover  an  equivalent  flat  area  to 
the  depth  of  one  inch ;  thus  a  third  of  the  rainfall  was  available 
for  storage. 

These  several  quantities,  the  maximum,  minimum,  and  mean 
daily  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second ;  the  quantity  per  square 
mile  drained  and  the  depth  of  run-off  in  inches  are  usually  com- 
puted for  each  month  of  the  year  for  all  of  the  points  of  meas- 
urement on  any  given  stream — thus  enabling  direct  comparison 
and  a  study  of  the  quantities  which  exist. 

ORDINARY  AND  AVERAGE  FLOW.  The  item  of  most  importance 
in  considering  many  of  the  problems  of  water  power  or  of  con- 
servation by  storage  is  as  to  the  average  or  ordinary  flow  of  a 
stream  which  may  be  depended  upon.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary 
also  to  know  the  maximum  as  noted  above  and  to  make  suitable 
allowance  for  the  extraordinary  floods ;  also  to  ascertain 
whether  at  certain  seasons  the  stream  will  probably  drop  to  a 
minimum  or  become  dry ;  but  throughout  all  the  computations, 
the  ordinary  condition  is  of  prime  interest.  In  this  connection, 


RUN-OFF  113 

it  is  important  to  point  out  the  difference  which  exists  between 
the  average  flow  and  the  ordinary  flow.  In  streams  having 
relatively  small  fluctuation,  the  average  and  the  ordinary  flows 
are  practically  the  same,  but  in  streams  of  erratic  behavior,  with 
floods  which  may  occur  in  rapid  succession  during  a  single 
month  and  not  again  for  years,  the  average  flow  is  considerably 
higher  than  the  ordinary  and  a  statement  of  the  average  may  be 
misleading. 

The  ordinary  or  natural  flow  are  terms  in  common  use  and 
like  many  such  expressions  must  be  carefully  explained  in  order 
to  prevent  misunderstanding.  Various  definitions  have  been 
attempted  of  which  that  given  by  Robert  E.  Horton  in  Engi- 
neering Record,  May  2,  1914,  p.  495,  is  probably  the  most  use- 
ful. He  gives  it  as  the  most  uniform  or  median  stage  and 
arrives  at  it  by  taking  the  flow  for  each  day  in  the  year,  arrang- 
ing these  quantities  in  their  order  of  magnitude.  Then  it  is 
evident  that  the  middle  or  median  quantity  in  the  table  will 
represent  the  ordinary  stage  or  discharge,  as  the  case  may  be. 
That  this  is  the  most  usual  stage  or  discharge  is  evident,  since 
the  stream  is  just  as  likely  to  be  higher  as  lower.  As  to  ordi- 
nary high  water,  and  ordinary  low  water,  the  finding  of  satis- 
factory definitions  may  appear  a  little  more  difficult.  Mr. 
Horton  has,  however,  used  the  following  definitions  for  the 
terms : 

"The  ordinary  stage  is  the  median  stage." 

"Ordinary  high  water  is  the  median  point  for  stages  or  discharges 
of  the  stream  which  are  above  the  median  stage  or  discharge  for  the 
whole  record." 

"Ordinary  low  water  is  the  median  point  for  stages  or  discharges 
of  the  stream  which  are  below  the  median  stage  for  the  whole 
record." 

"As  a  rule,  the  ordinary  stage  of  a  stream  is  less  than  the  average 
or  mean  stage :  as  a  rule  a  stream  is  below  its  mean  stage  more  than 
one-half  of  the  time  and  above  its  mean  stage  less  than  one-half  of 
the  time." 

There  has  been  as  yet  no  general  agreement  among  engineers 
with  reference  to  the  definition  of  ordinary  flow,  and  the  term 
"natural"  flow  has  been  used  synonymously.  It  has  been  given 


114  WATER  RESOURCES 

interpretation  by  the  courts  at  various  times,  as  noted  in  the 
"Cyclopaedia  of  Law,"  to  the  effect  that  "the  natural  flow  is  the 
quantity  of  water  ordinarily  flowing  in  the  stream  at  the  times 
when  its  volume  is  not  increased  by  unusual  freshets  or  rains." 

Natural  and  ordinary  flow  are  in  some  cases,  at  least,  used 
synonymously.  Thus  in  67  Neb.  325,  "Hall  at  most,  as  a 
riparian  owner,  was  entitled  to  only  the  ordinary  and  natural 
flow  of  the  stream." 

Another  method  of  ascertaining  the  ordinary  flow  is  to 
arrange  the  table  of  daily  discharges,  listing  them  in  the  order 
of  magnitude,  then  divide  this  table  into  four  parts,  taking  the 
average  or  middle  half  of  the  values  listed.  A  third  method  con- 
sists of  simply  finding  the  average  of  the  quantities  in  the  middle 
third. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  difference  in  the  results  obtained  by 
these  various  methods,  the  following  figures  have  been  prepared 
for  two  of  the  important  streams  on  the  Canadian  boundary  in 
northern  Montana.  One  of  these,  the  St.  Mary  River,  rises 
in  the  Glacial  National  Park  of  Montana  and  has  a  relatively 
steady  flow.  There  are,  however,  occasional  floods  which  tend 
to  increase  the  average.  The  other  stream,  the  Milk  River, 
rises  in  more  open  country  and  does  not  have  the  steady  flow 
characteristic  of  streams  but  depends  for  its  supply  largely 
upon  occasional  storms.  Thus  the  flow  is  more  irregular  and 
the  influence  of  the  erratic  floods  is  shown  in  raising  the  average. 

The  ordinary  flows  tabulated  below  have  been  computed  under 
the  direction  of  N.  C.  Grover,  by  three  slightly  different  meth- 
ods, described  above,  as  follows: 

First,  by  what  may  be  known  as  Horton's  method  (R.  E. 
Horton,  Engineering  Record,  May  2,  1914,  p.  495),  the  result 
is  the  median  value  as  described  above. 

Second,  which  may  be  known  as  the  middle  half  method,  the 
result  is  the  average  of  the  values  in  the  middle  half  of  the  values 
listed;  an  adaptation  from  rules  in  Rankine's  "Manual  of  Civil 
Engineering." 

Third,  consists  of  simply  finding  the  average  of  the  quantities 
in  the  middle  third. 

In  each  method  it  is  necessary  to  list  the  values  for  a  year  in 


RUN-OFF  115 

their   order  of  magnitude,   or  else   determine   their   frequency 
between  limits  selected  arbitrarily.    The  results  follow : 

1.  St.  Mary  River  near  Cardston,  Canada,  1910. 

1.  Ordinary  flow  by  Morton's  method  700  sec.-ft. 

2.  Ordinary  flow  by  middle  half  method  729  sec.-ft. 

3.  Ordinary  flow  by  middle  third  method  723  sec.-ft. 

4.  Mean  annual  flow  as  published  917  sec.-ft. 

2.  Milk  River  at  Milk  River,  Canada,  1913. 

1.  Ordinary  flow  by  Horton's  method  69  sec.-ft. 

2.  Ordinary  flow  by  middle  half  method  68  sec.-ft. 

3.  Ordinary  flow  by  middle  third  method  65  sec.-ft. 

4.  Mean  annual  flow  as  published  155   sec.-ft. 

3.  Milk  River  at  Havre,  Montana,  1910. 

1.  Ordinary  flow  by  Horton's  method  38  sec.-ft. 

2.  Ordinary  flow  by  middle  half  method  46  sec.-ft. 

3.  Ordinary  flow  by  middle  third  method  37  sec.-ft. 

4.  Mean  annual  flow  as  published  143  sec.-ft. 

The  ordinary  monthly  flow  for  St.  Mary  River  at  Inter- 
national Boundary  and  Kimball  has  also  been  computed.  The 
records  used  were  for  1904  to  1908  and  1910  to  1914.  The 
month  of  January,  1904,  was  estimated  at  200  second-feet,  thus 
making  available  ten  complete  years. 

1.  Ordinary  flow  by  Horton's  method  540  sec.-ft. 

2.  Ordinary  flow  by  middle  half  method  622  sec.-ft. 

3.  Ordinary  flow  by  middle  third  method  595  sec.-ft. 

4.  Mean  annual  flow  for  ten  years  939  sec.-ft. 

If  reservoirs  on  a  stream  are  so  situated  that  they  can  receive 
the  entire  flow  irrespective  of  time,  then  there  is  less  importance 
attached  to  this  difference  between  the  average  and  ordinary 
flow,  but  if  the  floods  must  be  conducted  through  canals  or 
artificial  structures,  it  can  readily  be  appreciated  that  it  is  the 
ordinary  flow  which  has  value  and  for  utilizing  which  plans  may 
be  developed.  The  erratic  floods  which  tend  to  raise  the  aver- 
age are  often  of  more  injury  than  value  and  in  any  comparison 
of  streams  the  inclusion  of  these  in  the  averages  may  lead  to 
fallacious  conclusions. 


116  WATER  RESOURCES 

To  illustrate,  if  we  have  two  streams  of  approximately  the 
same  average  flow  we  may  find  on  analysis  that  on  one  of  them 
practically  all  of  the  water  occurs  during  one  or  two  storms  and 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  bed  is  dry.  Under  these 
conditions  it  may  be  practically  impossible  to  utilize  any  con- 
siderable proportion  of  this  average.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
stream  of  about  the  same  flow  may  have  such  regularity  of 
behavior  that  the  entire  volume  can  be  successfully  handled. 
The  difference  between  these  streams  will  be  brought  out  if, 
instead  of  depending  upon  the  average,  we  have  before  us  the 
ordinary  flow,  namely,  that  which  is  most  usual  and  which  in 
the  case  of  the  flashy  stream  may  be  very  nearly  zero,  because 
the  bed  is  dry  for  a  great  part  of  the  year. 


CHAPTER  VII 
STORAGE  OF  WATER 

NECESSITY.  The  ability  to  obtain  enough  water  at  the  right 
time  and  place  makes  possible  an  increase  of  food  supply,  of 
population,  an'd  the  development  of  many  industries.  Without 
water  secured  by  storage  it  is  impracticable  for  many  communi- 
ties to  increase  and  prosper  or  for  men  to  find  steady  employ- 
ment in  various  industries.  If  there  is  not  sufficient  water  dur- 
ing summer  droughts,  agricultural  areas  are  abandoned  and 
many  mills  are  compelled  to  shut  down,  discharging  the  work- 
men temporarily.  Important  electric  light  plants  operated  by 
steam  have  been  crippled  at  critical  periods  through  lack  of 
condensing  water  for  their  engines.  As  cities  and  industries 
grow  there  becomes  a  greater  dependence  upon  an  artificially 
regulated  water  supply.  The  investment  of  large  sums  of 
money  in  providing  works  for  insuring  a  uniform  or  full  amount 
of  water  at  the  proper  time  is  one  of  the  marks  of  advancing 
civilization. 

The  primitive  savages,  appreciating  the  needs  of  water  stor- 
age, enlarged  or  improved  the  water  holes,  or  made  cisterns. 
Among  the  oldest  monuments  of  engineering  skill  are  the  works 
connected  with  water  supply.  Through  all  historic  time  there 
has  been  some  progress,  but  the  last  two  decades  have  been 
particularly  notable  for  the  great  increase  in  number  and  size 
of  storage  works  and  in  the  larger  application  of  engineering 
skill  and  appliances  in  building  these. 

The  storage  of  water  is  necessary  for  two  contrasting  condi- 
tions;  first  and  primarily,  to  provide  water  when  needed,  and 
second,  to  hold  back  an  excess  which  might  be  destructive.  This 
latter  use  of  storage  on  a  large  scale  is  comparatively  recent, 
although  from  early  times  dykes  and  low  dams  were  built  to 
restrain  flood  water  and  in  some  cases  large  reservoirs  were 


118  WATER  RESOURCES 

constructed  to  regulate  floods.  The  systematic  development  of 
these  restraining  works  for  river  regulation  or  control  is  now 
recognized  as  a  matter  vital  to  the  future  growth  of  the  country. 

In  Egypt  large  depressions  in  the  desert  near  the  valley  of 
the  Nile  were  utilized  many  thousands  of  years  ago,  the  flood 
waters  when  in  excess  being  conducted  to  low-lying  reservoirs 
in  order  to  prevent  extremely  high  water  from  injuring  the 
irrigated  lands.  In  some  cases  it  is  probable  that,  as  stated  by 
Sir  William  Willcocks,  portions  of  this  excess  water  thus 
stored  were  returned  to  the  river  in  time  of  low  water.  The 
modern  British  engineers  in  Egypt  have  studied  the  methods 
of  these  ancient  and  forgotten  engineers  and  although  conditions 
have  changed  somewhat,  especially  through  cultivation  of  the 
bottoms  of  some  of  the  old  reservoir  areas, — making  it  imprac- 
ticable to  restore  all  of  these  older  works, — yet  similar  enter- 
prises have  been  undertaken  in  holding  back  a  certain  portion 
of  the  flood  in  basins  built  in  the  main  course  or  valley  of  the 
river  itself.  The  lakes  and  swamps  near  the  headwaters  of  the 
Nile  are  being  explored  with  a  view  to  regulating  the  outlets  of 
the  natural  basins  which  exist  there  and  to  converting  these 
basins  into  storage  reservoirs. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  United  States,  particularly  along 
the  great  Colorado  River  of  the  West,  there  are  similar  condi- 
tions where  reservoirs  may  be  built  not  only  on  the  headwater 
streams  but  also  at  points  lower  down.1  To  the  west  of  the 
Colorado  River  in  southern  California  is  a  deep  depression 
extending  about  300  feet  below  sea  level,  similar  to  the  sunken 
valleys  in  the  desert  west  of  the  Nile.  The  lands  around  this 
depression,  lying  both  above  and  below  sea  level,  known  as  the 
Imperial  Valley,  have  been  overflowed  in  past  ages.  At  the 
present  time  they  are  being  irrigated  in  part  by  the  water  of 
the  Colorado  River.  The  future  development  of  this  area  to  its 
full  capacity  is  dependent  upon  water  storage,  not  only  to  fur- 
nish a  needed  supply  in  years  of  scarcity,  but  for  increased 
protection  against  floods  such  as  have  produced  disastrous 
results  in  recent  years. 

i  "Colorado  River  and  its  Utilization,"  by  E.  C.  LaRue,  U.  S.  G.  S., 
Water  Supply  Paper  No.  395,  1916. 


STORAGE  OF  WATER  119 

The  effect  of  these  floods  in  breaking  over  the  river  banks  on 
the  way  to  the  Salton  Sea,  which  occupies  the  bottom  of  the 
Imperial  Valley,  is  shown  in  PL  XVIII.  B.  This  illustrates  the 
condition  of  the  farm  lands  which  have  been  cut  away  in  part  by 
the  uncontrolled  waters.  The  deep,  rich  soil  has  been  rapidly 
eroded  into  gorges  of  fifty  feet  or  more  in  depth,  thousands  of 
acres  being  ruined.  These  flood  waters  are  now  usually  con- 
trolled by  dykes,  but  the  ultimate  solution  of  many  difficulties 
and  the  realization  of  the  largest  opportunities  will  come  from 
the  consummation  of  well-considered  plans  of  storage. 

MODERN  METHODS.  Recent  progress  along  lines  of  water 
conservation  by  storage  has  resulted  largely  from  the  adoption 
of  modern  machinery  and  from  the  application  of  more  highly 
developed  principles  of  efficiency  and  economy  in  handling  mate- 
rials. There  are  relatively  few  new  principles  involved,  but  the 
resulting  structures  are  quite  different  in  plan  and  appearance 
from  those  of  olden  times.  The  experience  acquired  in  large 
numbers  of  works  recently  built  has  added  greatly  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject.  The  relatively  few  accidents  or  failures 
which  have  taken  place — although  disastrous — have  served  to 
shed  light  on  many  conditions  which  in  previous  years  were  not 
fully  appreciated. 

The  principal  advances  have  been  in  the  adoption  of  quicker 
and  more  economical  methods  of  placing  earth  in  dams  and  in 
protecting  it  from  erosion ;  also  in  methods  of  placing  concrete 
and  in  the  proportioning  of  the  dimensions  of  dams,  particularly 
those  having  an  arched  form  or  consisting  of  slabs  or  decks 
supported  by  buttresses.  Here  a  wide  diversity  of  practice  is 
seen,  accompanied  by  a  rapid  advance  in  economy  of  construc- 
tion. The  demands  made  upon  the  hydraulic  engineer  have 
forced  him  to  put  into  play  all  his  ingenuity  and  to  use  to  the 
utmost  all  his  wits  to  meet  the  rapidly  expanding  range  of  uses 
of  water.  He  is  being  called  upon  to  solve  more  and  more  intri- 
cate problems  growing  out  of  the  increasing  density  of  popula- 
tion and  the  multiplication  of  industries. 

In  the  practice  of  his  profession,  especially  in  relation  to  the 
larger  problems  of  storage,  the  engineer  must  have  available  the 
results  of  meteorological  observation  of  the  occurrence  of  water 


120  WATER  RESOURCES 

in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow,  and  must  obtain  data,  as  noted  on 
page  54,  as  to  the  variations  in  precipitation  which  take  place 
from  day  to  day  and  from  year  to  year,  as  well  as  to  the  re- 
sulting stream  flow.  He  must  consider  the  topography  of  the 
country  and  the  possibility  of  building  storage  reservoirs  to  con- 
serve the  supply ;  he  must  be  prepared  to  discuss  the  questions  of 
river  control,  of  erosion  and  sedimentation  and  of  the  use  of 
water  in  domestic  and  municipal  supplies,  also  in  the  production 
of  power  in  manufacturing  and  for  other  purposes  or  necessities 
created  by  the  ever  growing  needs  of  a  civilized  community. 

In  earlier  years  when  the  sparse  population  was  occupied 
mainly  in  agricultural  pursuits  and  the  industries  were  few, 
there  was  usually  enough  water  and  to  spare,  especially  in  the 
humid  areas  of  Europe  and  America;  no  great  difficulty  was 
found  in  procuring  ample  drinking  water  and  there  was  little 
interference  of  one  community  with  another  through  pollution 
by  discharging  sewage  or  manufacturing  wastes  into  the 
streams.  With  the  rapid  change  from  a  rural  to  an  urban 
population  and  with  the  growth  of  manufacturing  centers,  the 
question  of  obtaining  adequate  supplies  has  become  more  press- 
ing; joined  with  this  have  been  conflicts  between  the  diverse 
interests  of  manufacturing,  power  production  and  navigation. 
All  of  these  changes  call  for  more  research,  more  detailed  study 
of  the  data  available  and  a  larger  application  of  the  results  in 
preparing  engineering  plans. 

TOPOGRAPHY.  The  conditions  which  render  storage  feasible 
on  a  large  scale  are  quite  rare.  There  must  necessarily  be  a 
combination  of  a  broad  basin  or  nearly  flat  valley,  with  a  narrow 
outlet,  so  situated  that  an  adequate  supply  of  water  can  be 
brought  to  the  basin.  The  proximity  of  suitable  material  with 
which  to  form  a  dam  must  be  such  that  its  cost  in  the  dam  as 
well  as  that  of  acquiring  the  necessary  land  and  water  must  be 
within  reasonable  limits.  This  is  quite  unusual ;  out  of  a  hun- 
dred localities  where  it  is  popularly  supposed  that  water  might 
be  stored  there  are  only  a  few  which  comply  with  all  the  require- 
ments of  economy. 

In  most  cases  the  outlet  to  any  broad,  shallow  valley  is  itself 
broad  and  the  length  of  structure  required  to  close  this  outlet 


STORAGE  OF  WATER  121 

may  be  too  great  to  enable  a  dam  to  be  built  within  the  required 
cost.  If  the  outlet  to  the  valley  is  narrow  it  usually  happens, 
from  well-understood  geological  reasons,  that  the  valley  floor  is 
so  steep  that  a  dam  of  prohibitive  height  will  be  required  to 
hold  back  any  considerable  amount  of  water.  If  these  condi- 
tions are  favorable  it  usually  happens  that  the  location  does 
not  have  a  watershed  large  enough  to  furnish  an  adequate  sup- 
ply of  water  or  the  site  is  too  high  above  the  surrounding  coun- 
try to  enable  water  to  be  brought  to  the  basin.  Again,  if  this 
rare  combination  of  capacity  of  reservoir,  short  and  low  dam, 
and  adequate  supply  of  water  exists,  then  comes  the  question 
of  material  for  the  dam  and  the  cost  of  putting  this  in  place, 
keeping  this  cost  so  low  that  the  finished  structure  falls  within 
the  requirements  of  funds  available. 

MOUNTAIN  STORAGE.  The  conditions  which  have  given  rise 
to  the  mountains  with  their  highland  valleys  are  most  favorable 
for  the  creation  of  reservoir  sites ;  hence  the  most  striking  exam- 
ples of  storage  works  are  to  be  found  in  a  mountainous  country. 
There  is  also  usually  ample  good  building  material  at  hand  and 
in  some  cases  nature  has  already  formed  small  lakes,  particu- 
larly at  the  headwaters  of  the  streams  where  glacial  action  has 
resulted  in  innumerable  ponds.  The  outlets  of  some  of  these 
may  be  closed  at  relatively  small  expense  and  the  level  of  the 
water  surface  raised,  giving  increased  storage  capacity.  There 
are  also  many  valleys  which  in  former  ages  contained  lakes ; 
here  the  old,  worn-down  barriers  can  be  restored  at  relatively 
small  expense.  The  chief  difficulty  encountered  in  connection 
with  these  mountain  reservoirs  is  that  of  securing  an  ample 
supply  of  water,  because  of  the  fact  that  the  mountain  valleys 
lie  at  high  altitudes,  often  hundreds  of  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  main  streams. 

The  typical  mountain  reservoir  site  offers  advantages  in  that 
rock  suitable  for  masonry  is  usually  found  in  the  vicinity  and 
the  foundations  for  the  dams  are  firmer  than  in  the  case  of  sites 
in  the  more  open  country.  The  loss  by  evaporation  from  the 
surface  of  the  reservoir  built  in  the  mountains  is  usually  small 
because  of  the  prevailing  low  temperature.  One  of  the  largest 
and  most  economical  of  the  mountain  reservoir  sites  is  Lake 


122  WATER  RESOURCES 

Tahoe,  shown  in  PI.  I.  A.  Another  notable  locality  is  Jackson 
Lake  in  Wyoming,  shown  in  PL  IV.  B.  This  is  south  of  Yellow- 
stone National  Park  and  is  at  the  head  of  Snake  River.  By 
building  a  dam  5,000  feet  in  length  at  the  outlet,  the  United 
States  Reclamation  Service  has  made  available  a  storage  capa- 
city of  789,000  acre-feet  at  a  cost  of  about  a  million  dollars. 

PLAINS  STORAGE.  The  rivers  issuing  from  the  mountains 
increase  in  volume  as  they  descend,  thus  affording  an  ample  sup- 
ply of  water  for  storage  in  the  lower  courses.  This  condition  is 
in  striking  contrast  with  the  scanty  amount  available  at  the 
headwater  basins.  Because  of  this,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
consider  the  question  of  water  storage  at  points  out  on  or  adja- 
cent to  the  lower  valleys  or  plains  through  which  the  rivers  flow. 
The  disadvantages,  however,  in  these  lower  altitudes  are  usually 
great,  because  of  the  scarcity  of  good  reservoir  sites  and  of 
suitable  material  for  building  the  impounding  dams.  The  meth- 
ods to  be  employed  and  plans  to  be  adopted  are  less  obvious  in 
connection  with  these  lower  reservoirs.  When  built,  the  loss  by 
evaporation  and  seepage  must  be  taken  into  account  to  a  larger 
degree  than  in  the  case  of  the  storage  works  at  higher  altitudes. 

Among  the  notable  instances  of  plains  reservoirs  is  the  Deer 
Flat  of  the  Boise  Project,  Idaho,  built  to  hold  the  flood  waters 
which  occur  below  the  upper  mountain  reservoirs.  The  flat 
itself  was  not  particularly  well  adapted  by  nature  for  an  arti- 
ficial lake,  as  it  required  several  earth  dams  of  considerable 
length  to  inclose  the  basin.  One  of  these  dams  is  shown  in  PI. 
V.  D.  This  dam  is  of  earth,  7,200  feet  long  and  40  feet  high, 
containing  1,207,670  cubic  yards. 

Another  plains  site  is  that  of  the  Cold  Springs  Reservoir  of 
the  Umatilla  Project  in  Oregon.  The  view,  PL  V.  C,  does  not 
give  the  impression  of  a  favorable  locality.  It  is  simply  a  de- 
pression in  a  broad  sagebrush-covered  plain,  and  with  a  wide 
outlet.  Yet  this  was  the  best  place  which  could  be  found  for  the 
storage  of  the  erratic  floods  of  the  Umatilla  River.  The  seep- 
age losses  are  large  and  the  basin  is  shallow — but  in  spite  of 
these  disadvantages,  the  reservoir  is  performing  its  part  in  the 
development  of  the  country. 

SURVEYS.    The  first  step  to  be  taken  in  considering  the  prob- 


STORAGE  OF  WATER  123 

lem  of  water  storage  is  that  of  a  general  reconnoissance  of  the 
whole  country  under  consideration,  including  both  mountains 
and  valleys.  If  a  good  topographical  map,  such  as  that  pre- 
pared by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  is  available, 
a  great  part  of  the  time  and  expense  of  the  reconnoissance  may 
be  saved.  In  any  event,  whether  there  is  a  map  or  not,  the 
reconnoissance  should  be  made  by  the  best  man  available — one 
experienced  not  only  in  the  larger  details  of  construction  but 
accustomed  to  form  correct  judgments  as  to  topographic  fea- 
tures and  hydrographic  conditions.  It  is  largely  upon  the 
exercise  of  such  judgment  that  the  extent  and  character  of 
future  detailed  surveys  depend  and  the  economical  working  out 
of  any  plan  which  may  be  adopted.  It  not  infrequently  happens, 
where  the  preliminary  work  was  done  by  men  inexperienced 
in  the  matter,  that  the  wrong  beginning  has  been  made  and 
unnecessary  expenditures  have  been  incurred,  because  in  the 
preliminary  study  certain  important  features  were  not  appre- 
ciated. 

When  the  general  conditions,  both  of  topography  and  hy- 
drography, of  the  river  basin  have  been  examined,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  prepare  some  definite  estimates  of  the  relative 
capacity  and  cost  of  various  storage  sites.  Although  it  may  be 
possible  to  judge  by  the  eye  something  as  to  the  relative  value  of 
various  basins,  yet  in  the  mountains  particularly,  there  are 
many  optical  illusions  as  regards  slope.  Carefully  run  lines  of 
levels  and  topographical  sketches  are  necessary  to  verify  the 
first  assumptions.  It  may  be  necessary  to  follow  these  first 
topographical  maps  with  others  even  more  detailed  as  the  choice 
begins  to  narrow  down  to  a  few  alternatives.  The  basin  ulti- 
mately chosen  should  be  mapped  with  a  contour  interval  of  at 
least  10  feet  vertically  and  in  some  cases  of  a  smaller  scale  of 
5  feet.  It  is  important  to  know  the  capacity  of  the  reservoir  for 
each  foot  of  water  height  and  the  corresponding  area  exposed  to 
evaporation. 

At  the  dam  site  where  the  heavy  expenditure  is  to  be  made, 
there  is  need  of  even  more  careful  topographic  surveys.  It 
usually  happens  that  when  the  best  basin  has  been  chosen  for 
a  reservoir  there  is  considerable  latitude  for  judgment  as  to  the 


124  WATER  RESOURCES 

location  of  the  dam  itself.  A  change  of  a  few  feet  up-  or 
downstream  may  involve  notable  increase  or  decrease  in  the 
quantity  of  material  to  be  handled.  The  various  possible  loca- 
tions should  be  surveyed  with  such  degree  of  care  as  to  show 
contours  at  two-foot  vertical  intervals.  On  this  map  should  be 
placed  all  facts  connected  with  depth  to  bedrock  or  to  imper- 
vious strata.  Ample  time  should  be  allowed  for  making  these 
topographic  maps  and  related  studies.  Every  dollar  econom- 
ically spent  on  this  work  may  result  in  a  saving  of  $10  in  con- 
struction. As  a  rule,  too  little  time  has  been  allowed  for  work 
of  this  kind,  as  it  usually  happens  that  when  the  people  building 
the  work  have  reached  the  point  of  making  detailed  surveys 
they  are  anxious  to  begin  to  assemble  the  construction  plant. 
The  engineer  is  thus  often  swept  off  his  feet  by  the  demand  that 
work  be  begun  and  is  not  given  the  opportunity  of  thoroughly 
exploring  the  foundation  and  of  considering  the  most  economical 
method  of  handling  the  material  available. 

The  surveys  and  examinations  of  any  proposed  storage  sys- 
tem and  of  the  catchment  area  tributary  to  it  will  usually  reveal 
the  existence  of  several  basins  or  depressions  which  may  be  con- 
verted into  reservoirs.  They  should  also  show  the  character  of 
material  available  for  construction  and  the  foundations  upon 
which  each  proposed  structure  must  be  built.  Having  obtained 
these  essential  data,  the  next  question  for  the  consideration  of 
the  engineer  and  of  the  investor  is  as  to  the  relative  cost  and 
permanence  of  the  structures  which  may  be  needed  to  create 
the  necessary  water  storage. 

ALTERNATIVE  SITES.  It  is  usually  necessary  to  examine  a 
number  of  alternative  locations  for  the  site  of  the  dam.  Some- 
times there  must  be  provided  not  only  the  principal  dam  at  the 
main  outlet  of  the  valley  or  depression,  but  also  a  number  of 
supplemental  dams  or  dykes  to  raise  the  rim  of  the  basin  at 
various  points.  Even  if  there  is  only  one  gorge  or  narrow  out- 
let where  apparently  the  dam  can  be  located,  yet  there  are 
usually  points,  a  short  distance  apart,  where  the  underground 
conditions  may  be  better  than  at  others,  although  on  the  sur- 
face all  look  alike.  This  fact  can  be  determined  only  by  care- 
ful exploration,  usually  by  digging  test  pits  or  by  putting  down 


STORAGE  OF  WATER  125 

drill  holes.  When  the  foundations  are  finally  opened,  condi- 
tions may  be  discovered  which  will  force  a  relocation  higher  up 
or  lower  down  in  the  gorge. 

If  the  foundations  are  found  to  consist  of  solid  rock  and  there 
is  ample  similar  good  material  in  the  vicinity,  the  structure  may 
be  designed  to  be  built  of  ashlar  or  rubble  masonry  throughout. 
Usually,  however,  it  is  desirable  to  consider  the  practicability  of 
building  the  works  of  concrete.  With  the  recent  developments 
in  methods  in  the  manufacture  and  use  of  cement,  it  frequently 
occurs  that  economy  in  construction  can  be  secured  by  crush- 
ing the  rock  which  formerly  would  have  been  used  in  ordinary 
masonry,  and  then  making  a  relatively  homogeneous  mixture 
of  concrete  instead  of  attempting  to  quarry  large  blocks  and 
lay  each  of  these  separately  in  a  bed  of  mortar. 

MATERIALS.  The  essential  features  of  any  work  for  river 
regulation  or  for  conservation  of  water  by  storage  is  the  dam  or 
barrier  built  to  hold  back  the  flow  of  water.  This  usually  con- 
sists of  a  bank  of  earth  or  a  wall  of  masonry  or  wood  placed 
across  a  watercourse.  With  the  development  of  modern 
machinery  and  appliances  it  is  now  possible  to  build  dams  of  an 
almost  infinite  variety  of  materials  and  shapes;  the  principal 
question  being  as  to  the  relative  efficiency  and  economy  of  each 
type.  These  facts  are  determined  by  the  position  of  the  struc- 
ture itself  and  particularly  the  character  of  the  materials  avail- 
able in  the  vicinity ;  also  to  a  large  degree  by  the  texture  of  the 
rocks  or  soil  which  occur  at  the  place  where  the  dam  is  to  be 
built. 

As  regards  materials,  earth  or  disintegrated  rock  may  be 
considered  as  the  most  common.  The  word  earth  includes  prac- 
tically all  varieties  of  the  softer  matter  composing  the  surface 
of  the  globe  as  distinguished  from  the  firm  rock.  There  is  in 
reality  no  sharp  line  of  distinction  between  earth  or  soil  and 
rock;  from  the  geological  standpoint  rock  may  be  considered 
as  including  all  of  the  mineral  substances,  hard  and  soft,  which 
form  the  crust  of  the  globe.  It  is  this  fact  which  gives  rise  to 
more  or  less  controversy  in  construction  work,  and  to  avoid  mis- 
understanding there  should  always  be  given  a  careful  definition 
as  to  the  way  of  distinguishing  between  rock  and  earth.  From 


126  WATER  RESOURCES 

the  scientific  standpoint  granite,  sand,  gravel  and  clay  are  rock ; 
but  for  engineering  purposes  it  may  be  necessary  to  define  earth 
as  material  which  may  be  moved  by  any  ordinary  plow  as  dis- 
tinguished from  firm  rock  which  cannot  be  thus  easily  disturbed. 

The  reason  for  this  inability  to  distinguish  clearly  between 
earth  and  rock  arises  from  the  fact  that  most  earths  are  formed 
by  the  disintegration  of  more  solid  rocks.  As  the  decay  pro- 
ceeds there  is  no  sharp  line  of  demarkation  between  the  crum- 
bling rock  and  soft  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  the  harder  rocks  are 
to  a  large  extent  formed  of  sand  or  clay  which  has  been  con- 
solidated in  the  course  of  ages.  Thus  while  there  may  be  no  diffi- 
culty in  deciding  that  a  given  substance  is  rock  and  that  another 
is  earth  there  are  innumerable  intermediate  conditions  where 
such  classification  is  impracticable  without  some  arbitrary 
definition  agreed  upon  in  advance,  such  as  the  plow  test. 

In  considering  the  materials  used  in  building  dams,  we  may 
start  with  the  disintegrated  rock  in  the  form  of  clay,  sand  or 
gravel  and  consider  as  earth  dams  those  which  are  built  up  by 
the  proper  arrangement  or  mixture  of  these  substances.  If  we 
imagine  that  the  individual  particles  become  grouped  or  con- 
solidated into  larger  masses,  we  pass  into  the  class  of  loose  rock 
dams  in  which,  as  in  the  earth  dams,  stability  is  secured  by  each 
block  or  mass  resting  against  and  being  held  in  place  by  its 
neighbor.  The  next  step  in  evolution  would  consist  in  fitting 
together  these  loose  masses  and  causing  them  to  adhere  to  each 
other  by  suitable  cementing  substances,  giving  rise  to  rubble 
masonry  or  if  the  stones  are  carefully  squared,  to  ashlar 
masonry.  Again,  if  instead  of  fitting  the  stones  together,  we 
crush  them  to  smaller  size  and  then  mix  them  with  cementing 
material,  we  have  the  concrete  structure.  The  latter  substance, 
being  semifluid,  can  be  poured  or  molded  into  form  and  used 
under  many  conditions  where  earth  or  rock  would  be  inadvis- 
able. We  may  also  substitute  timbers  for  masonry,  building 
tight  walls  supported  by  suitable  frames  or  even  by  a  rock  back- 
ing, thus  having  various  combinations  of  wood,  stone,  earth,  or 
cement.  Metal  also  is  used,  both  in  sheets  and  in  beams,  replac- 
ing the  older  wooden  dams  and  enabling  structures  of  great  size 
to  be  built  with  a  high  degree  of  economy. 


Plate  VI.  A. 

An  unusually  good  dam  site  in  a  narrow  granite  gorge  with  bedrock  a 
few  feet  below  the  surface.  Site  of  the  Pathfinder  Dam  on  North  Platte 
River,  Wyoming. 


Plate  VI.  B. 

Deceptive  appearance  of  foundations,  river  apparently  flowing  upon 
bedrock,  but  diamond  drill  shows  that  the  channel  is  filled  with  bowlders 
and  loose  rock  to  a  depth  of  sixty  feet  or  more.  Site  of  Shoshone  Dam, 
Wyoming. 


Plate  VI.  C. 

Site  of  Roosevelt  Dam,  Arizona.     Showing  highly  inclined  strata  of  side 
walls  and  narrow  gorge. 


Plate  VI.  D. 

Building  a  dam  of  earth,  showing  core  wall  in  center  with  earth  banks 
above  and  below,  to  be  widened  until  they  join,  covering  the  core  wall; 
test  pits  on  hillside  in  line  of  core  wall;  Strawberry  Valley  Dam,  Utah, 
looking  upstream. 


STORAGE  OF  WATER  127 

Each  and  all  of  the  above-named  substances  and  others  such 
as  brick  or  terra  cotta  have  been  employed  in  storage  works, 
large  and  small.  The  question  to  be  considered  in  each  case 
is  that  of  safety  as  well  as  efficiency  and  economy,  both  in 
construction  and  in  later  maintenance. 

FOUNDATIONS.  The  character  of  the  foundations  largely 
determines  the  material  to  be  used  for  a  dam.  It  is  obvious  that 
on  a  soft  base,  heavy  masonry  cannot  be  readily  used.  The 
crucial  point  and  the  one  where  failure  has  usually  taken  place 
has  been  at  the  base.  There  the  hydrostatic  pressure  is  at  its 
maximum  and  under  a  head  of  100  feet  or  more,  water  finds 
its  way  through  minute  cracks  or  joints  and  exerts  a  pressure 
sufficient  to  disrupt  the  weaker  rocks.  The  character  and 
design  of  the  dam  are  dependent  largely  upon  the  foundation, 
both  as  to  its  permeability  and  its  strength  in  holding  the 
structure. 

As  a  rule  the  spot  where  the  foundations  are  to  be  placed  is 
concealed  by  overlying  loose  material.  A  few  rare  cases  have 
been  found  where,  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  harder  granites, 
stream  erosion  has  laid  the  bottom  bare  and  there  is  no  dis- 
integration or  weakening  of  the  surface.  Such  a  condition  was 
found  at  the  Pathfinder  Dam  in  central  Wyoming,  where  the 
North  Platte  River,  as  shown  in  PL  VI.  A,  had  sawed  its  way 
through  a  rising  block  of  granite  and  was  flowing  between 
granite  walls  over  a  granite  bed  covered  to  a  depth  of  only  a 
few  feet  with  loose  material  which  had  fallen  from  the  walls. 

BORINGS.  Investigation  has  shown  that  throughout  the  arid 
west  the  streams  have  been  choked  with  material  which  is  washed 
in  or  has  fallen  from  the  sides  so  that  the  present  bed  is  usually 
from  50  to  100  feet  above  the  level  at  which  the  river  flowed  in 
earlier  times,  as  shown  in  PI.  VI.  B.  It  is  necessary  to  pene- 
trate this  loose  material  and  to  ascertain  before  construc- 
tion exactly  what  are  the  conditions  of  the  bottom  and  the 
side  of  the  valley  where  a  dam  is  to  be  placed.  The  primi- 
tive method  of  ascertaining  these  facts  is  to  sink  a  well  or  shaft 
down  to  and  into  the  bedrock.  Usually,  however,  the  inflow  of 
water  is  so  great  that  without  powerful  pumping  machinery 
the  digging  of  such  a  shaft  is  impossible.  To  overcome  this 


128  WATER  RESOURCES 

difficulty  the  usual  method  is  to  drill  holes  of  from  two  to  six 
inches  or  more  in  diameter,  such  as  those  made  by  the  ordinary 
well  drills,  and  to  carefully  clean  out  each  hole  as  it  is  cut  down- 
ward, saving  and  studying  the  debris  which  comes  from  the 
bottom  of  the  hole  to  ascertain  the  character  of  the  material 
penetrated.  Great  skill  is  required  in  judging  correctly  as  to 
whether  the  hole  is  penetrating  solid  material  or  is  in  loose  rocks 
which  have  fallen  into  a  depression. 

An  improvement  on  the  old-fashioned  hand  or  churn  drill 
is  that  of  the  rotating  diamond  or  steel  point  which  cuts  an 
annular  hole  from  which  a  core  can  be  obtained.  This  core 
enables  an  expert  to  judge  accurately  as  to  the  character  of 
the  material  penetrated.  In  all  cases,  however,  great  care  must 
be  exercised  to  see  that  the  drill  is  actually  working  in  the  solid 
rock  and  not  in  a  great  bowlder;  for  example,  at  the  Shoshone 
Dam  a  granite  bowlder  over  twenty  feet  in  diameter  was 
encountered ;  had  the  precaution  not  been  observed  of  going 
forty  feet  or  more  into  the  rock  the  long  solid  core  from  the 
bowlder  would  have  been  considered  as  proof  that  bedrock  had 
been  reached.  It  so  happened,  however,  that  the  drill  at  about 
the  twentieth  foot  of  penetration  passed  into  sand  and  gravel 
and  then  again  into  granite  which  finally  proved  to  be  the  real 
bedrock. 

In  planning  the  field  research,  drill  holes  must  be  placed  at 
short  intervals  across  the  outlet  of  the  valley,  where  the  dam  is 
to  be  placed,  and  up  and  down  the  stream  far  enough  to  deter- 
mine the  character  and  slope  of  the  underground  layers  of 
earth  or  rock.  The  holes  also  should  be  continued  up  on  the 
hillsides  until  a  place  is  reached  above  water  level  where  pits 
or  shafts  can  be  sunk  exposing  the  abutments  on  each  side. 
It  frequently  happens  that  the  rocks  at  the  dam  site  are  strati- 
fied and  that  water  percolates  along  the  bedding  or  through 
the  joints.  This  condition  must  be  thoroughly  studied,  as  it 
affects  the  stability  of  any  structure  which  may  be  built  at 
this  spot.  It  is  possible  to  adopt  methods  which  will  render  a 
dam  reasonably  tight,  but  for  safety  and  economy  of  construc- 
tion it  is  far  better  to  know  and  anticipate  any  unfavorable 


STORAGE  OF  WATER  129 

conditions  than  to  attempt  to  rectify  them  after  the  structure 
has  been  built. 

The  conditions  which  exist  at  the  site  of  the  Roosevelt  Dam 
in  Arizona  are  illustrated  in  PL  VI.  C.  There  the  gorge  con- 
sists of  stratified  quartzite  dipping  upstream  at  a  high  angle. 
The  cliffs  afford  excellent  opportunities  for  quarries.  The 
stratification  of  rock  dipping  toward  the  reservoir  site  was 
considered  as  being  of  advantage  in  that  any  leakage  which 
might  occur  along  the  seams  must  necessarily  flow  uphill  and 
be  thus  reduced  in  volume.  There  are,  however,  a  number  of 
faults  or  planes  of  fracture  which  intersect  the  rock  at  this 
place.  The  location  of  the  dam,  therefore,  was  considered  with 
reference  to  these  lines  of  weakness. 

The  character  of  the  foundations  and  of  the  rock  or  other 
substance  to  be  used  in  building  the  dam  determines  to  a  large 
degree  not  only  the  ultimate  cost  and  safety  but  also  the  imme- 
diate plan  of  operation  and  the  kind  of  equipment  to  be  used. 
Under  ideal  conditions  where  there  is  a  firm,  water-tight 
foundation,  and  solid  rock  to  be  had  in  the  walls  of  the  valley, 
the  plans  may  be  relatively  simple,  but  if,  as  is  often  the  case, 
the  foundations  are  weak  and  imperfect  and  there  is  not  within 
easy  reach  a  good  supply  of  rock,  then  there  must  be  a  bal- 
ancing of  cost  between  bringing  from  a  distance  of  a  mile 
or  more  a  better  quality  of  material  or  shifting  the  site  and 
adopting  plans  such  as  to  use  a  greater  quantity  of  poorer 
material  nearer  at  hand.  For  example,  on  a  soft  foundation 
it  may  be  decided  to  use  a  great  quantity  of  earth,  thus  building 
a  dam  of  unusual  thickness  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  the  Gatun 
Lake  in  Panama  rather  than  to  risk  building  a  masonry  or 
concrete  structure  on  the  yielding  base.  There  is  usually  a 
wide  range  of  conditions  to  be  studied  and  it  is  hardly  possible 
to  make  the  research  too  thorough  or  to  gain  too  much  informa- 
tion regarding  the  character  of  the  material  and  of  its  prob- 
able behavior  under  different  forms  of  handling  or  arrangement. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
DAMS 

EARTH  DAMS.  The  oldest  and  most  numerous  of  the  struc- 
tures built  for  the  control  or  conservation  of  water  by  storage 
are  of  earth.  Many  ancient  dams  antedate  written  his- 
tory ;  some  are  still  in  use  and  the  remains  of  thousands  which 
have  been  destroyed  through  age  and  neglect  are  to  be  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  earth  where  man  has  long  lived.  Earth  dams 
are  still  being  built,  of  larger  and  larger  size,  and  with  greater 
skill  and  economy  than  in  the  past.  In  spite  of  the  notable 
development  in  handling  other  more  stable  materials,  they  offer 
many  advantages. 

Because  of  the  fact  that  earth  is  a  result  of  decay  or  dis- 
integration, it  is  essentially  stable,  for  it  cannot  deteriorate 
nor  change  its  character ;  but  since  it  consists  of  small  particles, 
it  is  easily  eroded,  its  form  though  not  its  substance  is  easily 
altered  by  rains  or  floods.  Earth  dams  if  properly  built  and 
protected  from  erosion  or  other  mechanical  change  are  thus 
among  the  most  permanent  works  of  man,  but  if  not  thus 
protected,  they  may  be  destroyed  in  a  few  days  or  hours. 

The  chief  claim  for  consideration  of  the  use  of  earth  for  a 
proposed  dam  lies  primarily  in  the  fact  that  earth  or  decom- 
posed rock  occurs  almost  everywhere  on  the  land  surface.  It 
is,  of  course,  of  widely  differing  composition  and  texture,  vary- 
ing from  fine  silica,  sand  or  gravel  to  complex  silicates  such 
as  clays  and  silts,  or  it  may  have  an  admixture  of  organic 
matter  and  earthy  salts  forming  more  or  less  soluble  and  fertile 
soils.  In  considering  earth  for  use  in  dams,  it  is  necessary  first 
to  define  what  the  earth  consists  of,  as  it  may  have  a  very  wide 
range  of  chemical  or  physical  properties. 

The  only  quality  common  to  all  earth  is' that  it  is  relatively 
loose  or  friable  and  can  be  easily  dug  or  moved  by  hand  or 


DAMS  131 

simple  machinery.  The  earth  under  consideration  for  use  at 
some  locality  may  consist  of  loose  sand.  It  is  obvious  that 
this  alone  will  not  be  suitable  for  building  a  dam  of  any  consid- 
erable height.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  material  is  a  silt  or 
loam,  this  used  alone  will  not  be  suitable,  but  mixtures  of  the 
sand  and  silt  with  possibly  the  addition  of  some  gravel  may 
result  in  a  combination  which  is  not  only  impervious  to  water, 
but  can  be  built  to  withstand  a  considerable  pressure.  The 
study  of  the  earthy  materials  available  near  any  given  dam  site, 
and  of  the  possible  combinations  of  these,  demands  experience 
and  ripe  judgment. 

The  condition  of  the  foundations  with  regard  to  permea- 
bility and  strength  to  sustain  a  weight,  as  noted  on  page  127, 
may  be  such  as  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that,  even  though  rock 
may  be  available,  yet  safety  will  be  promoted  by  building  an 
earthen  structure.  The  question  then  arises  as  to  the  quality 
of  the  various  deposits  of  earth  which  may  be  mixed  and  the 
methods  of  handling  these  and  of  placing  them  in  the  dam. 
In  olden  times  all  this  work  was  done  by  hand  labor,  the  dirt 
being  shoveled  into  baskets  and  carried  to  the  point  of  deposit. 
Later  came  the  use  of  carts  or  scrapers  drawn  by  horses,  fol- 
lowed by  the  small  construction  railroad  in  which  cars  loaded 
with  dirt  by  a  steam  shovel  were  brought  to  the  desired  place. 
In  turn  the  latter  method  has  been  superseded  in  part  by  con- 
veyors of  various  types  and  even  water  itself  is  being  used  to 
sluice  the  earth  into  place.  Every  year  brings  out  some  im- 
proved mechanical  device  for  moving  earth  and  as  a  result  of 
studies  by  engineers  or  researches  into  the  hydraulic  processes, 
economies  are  being  effected  resulting  in  a  low  cost  which  a 
few  years  ago  was  considered  impossible. 

There  is  usually  to  be  considered  not  only  the  question  of 
the  selection  of  suitable  material  near  the  chosen  dam  site  but 
also  that  of  handling  it  in  a  systematic  fashion,  depositing  it 
in  place  with  great  care  and  uniformity,  such  as  to  secure 
practically  water-tight  conditions.  An  earth  dam  is  similar  in 
some  respects  to  a  loose  rock  dam  in  that  the  upper  or  water 
face  should  be  made  as  nearly  impervious  as  possible,  while  the 
downstream  or  dry  portions  may  be  built  of  coarser  material. 


132  WATER  RESOURCES 

Although  it  may  be  practicable  to  permit  water  to  overflow  a 
masonry,  concrete  or  loose-rock  structure,  such  action  means 
destruction  to  an  earth  dam,  and  hence  every  precaution  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  water  from  flowing  over  the  top. 

Usually  in  building  an  earth  dam  it  is  not  practicable  to 
carry  the  foundation  down  to  bedrock,  as  is  necessary  with 
masonry  structures.  In  all  cases,  however,  the  ground  must 
be  stripped  to  an  impervious  layer  of  clay  or  "hardpan"  and 
the  materials  composing  the  dam  placed  on  these  and  carefully 
incorporated  with  the  new  surface  thus  exposed.  The  selected 
earth  to  be  used  in  the  body  of  the  dam  should  be  slightly  wet 
and  rolled  in  thin  layers  to  secure  the  highest  degree  of  com- 
pactness. Layer  after  layer  of  three  or  four  inches  to  six 
inches  in  thickness  is  thus  worked  into  place,  care  being  con- 
tinually exercised  to  secure  thorough  compacting,  no  details 
being  slighted  or  omitted.  The  results  are  tested  from  time 
to  time  to  see  that  the  body  of  the  dam  is  homogeneous  and 
does  not  contain  any  defined  layers  or  incipient  cracks  into 
which  water  may  enter. 

In  cross  section,  the  earth  dams  are  in  striking  contrast  with 
those  built  of  masonry  or  concrete  in  that  the  slopes  must  neces- 
sarily be  well  within  what  is  known  as  the  angle  of  repose.  On 
the  upstream  face,  these  slopes  are  usually  one  foot,  vertical, 
to  three  horizontal,  and  on  the  downstream  or  dry  side,  one 
vertical  to  two  and  one-half  horizontal. 

The  upstream  or  water  side  of  any  earth  dam  must  be  pro- 
tected from  wave  washing  by  some  relatively  hard  material 
such  as  a  heavy  paving  of  rock  two  or  three  feet  in  thickness,  as 
shown  in  PL  VII.  C,  or  by  concrete  blocks  six  inches  or  more 
in  thickness,  held  in  place  against  disturbance  by  storms.  (See 
PL  XI.  C.)  In  some  cases  a  thick  layer  of  heavy  gravel  has 
been  applied,  as  for  example,  on  the  earthen  banks  of  Deer 
Flat  Reservoir  in  southern  Idaho ;  the  waves  are  allowed  to  carve 
this  gravel  bank  into  relatively  stable  slopes.  The  downstream 
side  of  the  earthen  dams  must  also  be  protected,  usually  by 
encouraging  the  growth  of  vegetation  and  by  preventing  the 
washing  of  rain  water  by  providing  suitable  gutters  or  drains 
to  keep  the  water  from  gullying  the  surface. 


DAMS  133 

The  main  features  of  an  earth  dam  are :  first,  the  incorpora- 
tion of  the  lower  layers  with  the  underlying  earth  of  the  entire 
foundation  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  water  from  percolating 
along  under  the  dam,  and,  second,  to  secure  an  impervious  layer 
as  near  the  upper  or  water  face  as  possible  to  hold  back  the 
water  from  entering  the  bod}7  of  the  dam.  The  strength  and 
stability  of  the  dam  are  evidently  decreased  if  the  particles  of 
which  it  is  composed  are  saturated  with  water.  Hence  the 
larger  the  proportion  of  the  dam  which  is  dry  the  greater  the 
strength. 

CORE  WALLS.  It  might  be  assumed  that  the  entire  body  of 
an  earth  dam  should  be  impervious,  but  experience  has  shown 
that  such  conditions  can  rarely  be  produced  and  that  it  is 
better  to  make  the  lower  side  of  the  dam  less  water-tight  than 
the  upper,  so  that  any  water  which  does  succeed  in  entering 
through  the  upper  face  may  escape  freely  below.  In  this  way, 
the  lower  or  dry  side  of  the  dam  is  rendered  relatively  more 
stable. 

In  some  cases,  for  convenience  of  construction,  the  plans  call 
for  a  vertical  wall  of  masonry  or  concrete  throughout  the  length 
of  an  earth  dam  as  in  PI.  VI.  D.  Under  these  conditions  the 
portion  of  the  dam  above  the  core  wall  becomes  saturated  with 
water  while  the  lower  portion,  cut  off  from  seepage  by  the  core 
wall,  is  kept  nearly  if  not  quite  dry.  The  dam  under  these 
conditions  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  a  water-tight  wall 
or  diaphragm  supported  from  overturning  upstream  by  the 
wet  earth  and  held  from  falling  downstream  by  the  dry  earth. 

Where  an  ample  supply  of  good  clay  can  be  found,  the  center 
core  wall  is  frequently  made  of  this  substance,  carefully  puddled, 
or  the  clay  is  placed  on  the  upper  half  or  third  of  the  dam, 
being  carefully  compacted  wrhile  slightly  moist.  Coarser  mate- 
rial is  then  placed  on  the  downstream  side  to  afford  free  drain- 
age of  the  small  amount  of  water  which  may  penetrate  the  clay. 

As  a  rule  in  building  earth  dams  the  use  of  pure  clay  is 
avoided,  except  for  a  water-tight  face  or  core  wall,  and  sand 
or  gravel  is  largely  employed,  incorporated  with  clay,  to  form 
a  mixture  which  is  less  likely  to  slide  or  slough  off.  Pure  clay 
absorbs  such  great  quantities  of  water  and  shrinks  so  greatly 


134  WATER  RESOURCES 

upon  drying  that  it  is  not  used  except  under  conditions  where 
it  will  be  kept  continually  wet. 

PAVING.  The  water  slope  of  all  earth  dams  must  be  pro- 
tected from  wave  action.  As  the  water  rises  and  falls  in  a 
reservoir,  the  shore  line  advances  or  retreats  along  the  earth 
bank  and  at  this  shore  line  wind  action  produces  waves  which 
tend  to  cut  a  shelf  or  beach.  To  overcome  this  action  and  to 
maintain  the  earth  slopes  in  symmetrical  and  safe  conditions, 
it  is  usually  necessary  to  pave  them  with  rock  or  in  some  cases 
with  cement  blocks.  An  example  of  ordinary  paving  is  shown 
in  PI.  VII.  C  and  in  PL  XI.  C,  this  being  on  a  portion  of  the 
Owl  Creek  Dam  of  the  Belle  Fourche  Project,  South  Dakota. 
The  paving  is  usually  placed  by  hand  on  a  gravel  base,  the 
stones  being  of  such  weight  and  so  carefully  placed  as  not  to 
be  liable  to  be  drawn  out  by  the  waves. 

HYDRAULIC  DAMS.  The  use  of  water  to  transport  earth  for 
the  building  of  dams  is  being  steadily  extended  because  of  the 
economies  which  are  possible  under  favorable  conditions.  The 
practice  is  the  outgrowth  of  hydraulic  operations  carried  on 
by  the  gold  miners  of  California.  The  debris  which  they  moved, 
as  stated  on  page  134,  was  of  such  great  volume  that  it  ob- 
structed the  streams  and  suggested  to  ingenious  men  the- 
practicability  of  utilizing  the  method  for  filling  depressions  or 
building  banks.  The  illustration,  PL  VII.  A,  gives  an  idea  of 
the  way  in  which  the  material  is  moved.  In  the  foreground  is 
a  hydraulic  giant  or  nozzle  from  which  water  is  issuing  with 
great  velocity.  This  water  is  obtained  from  some  high  mountain 
stream,  being  conducted  by  gravity  through  wooden  flumes 
or  it  may  be  pumped  from  lower  ground.  The  main  object  to 
be  achieved  is  to  have  an  adequate  pressure  such  as  to  make 
a  stream  which  will  tear  out  the  loose  soil  and  small  rocks.  As 
these  roll  down  they  are  caught  with  the  muddy  waters  and 
carried  away  on  flumes  built  at  a  grade  sufficient  to  enable  the 
water  to  transport  stones  weighing  sometimes  as  much  or  more 
than  100  pounds. 

The  flume  for  transporting  the  debris  is  constructed  in  such 
a  way  as  to  divide  and  spread  the  material  over  the  surface  of 
the  dam  to  be  built.  By  manipulation  of  the  flumes,  it  is  pos- 


Plate  VII.  A. 

Earth  dam  built  by  hydraulic  process,  washing  the  earth  and  loose  rock 
from  the  hillside  and  sluicing  the  debris  out  to  the  site  of  the  dam. 
Conconully  Reservoir. 


Plate  VII.  B. 

Earth   dam   built  by  hydraulic   process;    spillway   at   left   in   recent   rock 
excavation.     Conconully  Dam,  Okanogan  Project,  Washington. 


Plate  VII.  C. 
Paving  on  water  side  of  earth  dam,  Belle  Fourche  Project,  South  Dakota. 


Plate  VII.  D. 
Concrete  storage  dam,  at  East  Park,  Orland  Project,  California. 


DAMS  135 

sible  to  drop  the  larger  rocks  on  the  outside  of  the  proposed 
dam  and  to  leave  the  smaller  sand  and  gravel  nearer  the  center, 
the  finest  silt  being  placed  at  the  center  or  near  the  upstream 
side.  As  a -result  there  is  formed  a  dam  such  as  that  shown 
in  PI.  VII.  B,  the  outside  being  covered  with  heavy  stone  to 
prevent  erosion  and  the  inside  consisting  of  fine  water-tight 
materials. 

Among  the  examples  of  the  dams  built  by  this  method  are 
the  Gatun  Dam  at  Panama,  Necaxa  Dam  in  Mexico,  and  also 
the  Calaveras  Dam  in  California  now  under  construction.  A 
smaller  dam  built  by  the  Reclamation  Service  for  the  Okanogan 
Project,  Washington,  PI.  VII.  B,  has  been  mentioned.  The 
Necaxa  Dam  in  Mexico  and  also  the  Calaveras  Dam  in  Califor- 
nia are  notable  because  of  the  fact  that  in  building  each  of  these 
failure  took  place  under  almost  identical  conditions.  Clay  fill- 
ing, deposited  in  water  and  forming  the  interior  of  the  dam, 
did  not  dry  as  it  increased  in  height,  but  continued  of  semiliquid 
consistency  until  the  pressure  laterally  pushed  out  the  upstream 
side  and  the  clay  flowed  into  the  unfinished  reservoir.  In  the 
case  of  the  Necaxa1  Dam  the  failure  occurred  on  May  20,  1909, 
when  two  million  cubic  yards  of  earth  and  rock  had  been  placed; 
at  that  time  about  720,000  cubic  yards  flowed  into  the  dry 
reservoir.  In  the  case  of  the  Calaveras,2  the  failure  occurred  on 
May  24,  1918,  when  2,800,000  yards  had  been  placed;  of  this, 
800,000  yards  flowed  inwards.  These  failures  illustrate  on  a 
large  scale  the  instability  of  the  undrained  clay  and  the  neces- 
sity of  observing  suitable  precautions  in  permitting  it  to  dry  out 
slowly.  The  hydraulic  process  requires  great  skill,  but  for 
handling  sand,  gravel,  small  rock  or  mixtures  of  these  with  clay 
and  silt  this  method  has  been  found  to  be  generally  economical. 

A  loose  rock  dam  such  as  that  described  on  page  169  at  Mini- 
doka  on  Snake  River  in  Idaho,  may  be  considered  as  closely 
related  to  the  hydraulic  dam,  since  a  large  part  of  the  material 
has  been  sluiced  into  place.  It  forms  an  intermediate  stage 
between  the  solidly  constructed  and  carefully  laid  masonry  dam 
and  the  ordinary  earth  dam.  It  possesses  certain  advantages 

1  Engineering  News,  July  15,  1909,  Vol.  62,  p.  72. 

2  Engineering  News-Record,  April  11,  1918,  Vol.  80,  p.  704. 


136  WATER  RESOURCES 

in  overcoming  local  difficulties  and  permits  the  utilization  of 
materials  and  of  forces  which  at  first  appear  to  be  unfavorable. 
It  is  under  conditions  of  this  kind  that  the  engineer  shows  his 
highest  ability  in  turning  to  advantage  the  conditions  which 
appear  to  oppose  his  efforts  but  which  on  research  can  be  made 
to  serve  the  larger  needs  of  humanity. 

TIMBER  DAMS.  Mention  should  be  made  of  timber  dams 
which,  although  no  longer  built  in  as  large  numbers  as  in 
former  decades,  are  still  in  use  and  are  occasionally  employed, 
especially  for  temporary  structures  such  as  coffer  dams.  In 
the  heavily  forested  areas  among  the  mountains  where  timber  is 
plentiful,  it  is  still  being  used  in  dams  erected  in  connection 
with  lumber  operations.  Many  of  the  works  of  river  regulation 
and  of  water  conservation  have  been  made  practicable  by  using 
timber  and  at  a  later  day,  when  success  has  been  assured,  more 
permanent  materials  have  been  substituted. 

The  timber  dams  are  of  many  varieties  and  shapes.  In  most 
of  them  the  framework  has  been  constructed  with  an  inclined 
deck  of  plank  or  a  series  of  decks,  the  upper  face  being  sloped 
upstream  and  held  down  in  part  by  the  weight  of  the  water 
resting  upon  it.  Lower  decks  or  aprons  are  provided  to  con- 
duct the  water  away  from  the  base  of  the  dam  and  prevent 
undercutting.  In  many  instances  rectangular  log  cribs  have 
been  built  and  filled  with  heavy  stone,  making  a  combination  of 
timber  and  stone  structure,  the  weight  of  the  stone  holding  the 
timber  in  place  and  the  timber  protecting  the  stones  from  being 
carried  away  by  the  force  of  the  flowing  water. 

LOOSE  ROCK  DAMS.  The  ideal  structure  for  water  storage 
is  a  massive  dam  firmly  set  in  rocky  walls — but  like  many  ideals, 
it  is  not  always  practicable  of  achievement.  This  is  usually 
because  of  lack  of  suitable  foundations  such  as  are  sufficiently 
strong  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  wall  or  because  of  the  difficulty 
of  obtaining  in  the  vicinity  a  sufficient  supply  of  rock  of  proper 
shape  and  quantity  to  build  a  dam.  Wherever  conditions  are 
favorable,  masonry  is  being  employed  and  probably  will  be  used 
indefinitely,  although  concrete  is  rapidly  rising  in  favor. 

There  is  a  wide  range  of  rock  dams,  from  the  simplest  primi- 
tive type  of  a  pile  of  loose  rocks  supporting  a  relatively  imper- 


DAMS  137 

vious  layer  of  earth  to  the  ashlar  masonry,  each  unit  of  which 
is  carefully  dressed  and  laid  in  mortar  or  with  cement  joints. 
Loose  rock  dams  are  occasionally  built  but  under  somewhat 
exceptional  conditions.  For  example,  the  Minidoka  Dam  in 
southern  Idaho,  noted  on  page  169,  illustrates  how  certain  diffi- 
culties have  been  overcome.  The  river  where  the  dam  was  built 
was  of  too  great  a  size  and  volume  to  be  diverted  through  a 
tunnel  or  flume.  Thus  it  was  necessary  to  build  a  dam  while 
the  river  was  flowing  over  the  foundations.  To  do  this  large 
rocks  were  dumped  at  the  site,  the  size  of  the  rocks  being  suffi- 
ciently great  so  that  the  force  of  the  current  did  not  wash  them 
away.  By  placing  these  rapidly,  it  was  possible  to  retard  the 
flow  and  cause  the  water  level  to  rise.  At  the  same  time  the 
stream  penetrating  the  loose  rocks  and  escaping  in  large  volume 
below  tended  to  consolidate  the  masses  by  washing  the  loose 
pieces  into  place. 

A  loose  rock  dam  of  this  character,  built  of  stones  as  large 
as  can  be  handled,  is  in  effect  a  barrier  which  withstands  the 
pressure  or  attack  of  the  water  by  its  own  mass  or  weight.  The 
body  of  a  dam  thus  composed  of  big  and  little  pieces  of  rock 
is,  of  course,  permeable  to  water.  Its  function  is  to  hold  in 
place  the  water-tight  diaphragm  or  apron  placed  on  the  up- 
stream side.  To  put  it  in  another  way,  a  loose  rock  dam  con- 
sists of  a  relatively  thin  water-tight  wall  or  layer  of  steel,  wood 
or  clay  held  in  place  by  a  heavy  mass  of  pervious  material.  In 
constructing  such  a  dam,  the  larger  blocks  are  thrown  or 
dropped  into  the  stream  or  depression  to  be  closed.  On  the  up- 
stream face  smaller  and  smaller  stones,  gravel,  and  sand  are 
applied  in  succession,  gradually  reducing  the  size  of  the  inter- 
stices and  finally  on  the  upper  water  face  is  put  a  layer  of  clay 
of  such  fineness  that  the  water  cannot  penetrate  it. 

In  some  cases  where  the  dam  can  be  built  in  the  dry,  the 
impervious  layer  consists  of  a  plank  or  steel  or  iron  covering 
suitably  held  in  place.  Such  loose  rock  dams,  if  carefully  built 
and  maintained,  may  serve  indefinitely  and  at  a  cost — when 
interest  on  this  investment  is  considered — far  less  than  that 
of  the  more  substantial  masonry  structure.  There  is,  however, 


138  WATER  RESOURCES 

always  the  element  of  doubt  as  to  what  may  happen,  especially 
in  those  portions  which  cannot  be  inspected. 

MASONRY  DAMS.  In  contrast  with  the  loose  rock  dams  are 
masonry  structures  in  which  the  rocks  instead  of  being  dumped 
into  place  are  carefully  quarried,  dressed  to  a  certain  size  and 
then  laid  in  mortar  or  with  cemented  joints  so  nearly  water- 
tight that  no  perceptible  percolation  occurs.  Such  masonry 
dams  have  been  built  to  a  large  extent  in  the  past,  but  because 
of  the  expense,  the  majority  of  the  newer  structures  are  being 
built  of  concrete.  There  are  certain  exceptional  conditions, 
however,  where  masonry  works  may  be  considered.  These  have 
an  advantage  in  popular  opinion  at  least,  because  of  their  mas- 
sive appearance  and  the  fact  that  well-laid  masonry  has 
endured  through  many  centuries. 

Until  within  the  last  generation  the  typical  dam  was  one 
which  depended  for  its  stability  upon  the  weight  of  the  material 
used.  It  was  assumed  that  tension  in  masonry  should  not  be 
permitted  and  that  at  any  horizontal  plane  through  the  dam 
the  weight  of  the  material  resting  upon  this  plane,  when  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  the  pressure  against,  would  be  so 
adjusted  that  the  resultant  force  would  fall  within  the  middle 
third  of  the  plane.  The  theoretical  section  thus  became  a  rec- 
tangular triangle  with  vertical  water  faces  and  downstream  slope 
approximately  two  feet  horizontal  to  three  feet  vertical.  Addi- 
tional width  was  given  to  the  top  of  the  apex  of  the  triangle  in 
order  to  provide  for  a  roadway,  and  in  some  cases  near  the 
base  a  slight  curve  was  introduced  as  in  the  profile  of  the  Croton 
and  other  dams  of  the  New  York  water  supply  and  in  the 
Roosevelt,  Elephant  Butte,  and  similar  masonry  dams  of  the 
United  States  Reclamation  Service. 

CONCRETE  DAMS.  The  use  of  concrete  for  dams  has  rapidly 
increased  because  of  economy  in  handling  the  material  due  to 
modern  methods  and  machinery,  and  because  of  the  fact  that 
the  concrete  may  be  poured  or  molded  into  forms  most  advan- 
tageous for  the  particular  use.  In  comparing  a  concrete  with 
a  masonry  dam,  we  may  consider  that  the  aggregates  instead 
of  consisting  of  great  stones  carefully  laid  are  replaced  by  little 
pieces  which,  because  of  their  small  size,  can  be  easily  handled, 


DAMS  139 

mixed  with  mortar  and  conveyed  by  rapidly  moving  machinery. 
While  it  is  comparatively  difficult  to  obtain  large  blocks  of 
stone  suitable  for  masonry,  it  is  easy  to  get  rock  fragments  or 
to  crush  the  imperfect  large  blocks  containing  soft  spots  or 
cracks  into  small  pieces,  each  of  considerable  unit  strength.  In 
the  case  of  a  single  large  block,  the  machinery  for  handling  it 
must  be  ponderous  and  slow  moving;  the  operation  of  bedding 
each  rock  requires  great  care  and  a  considerable  expenditure  of 
time. 

The  shaping  of  the  dam  to  conform  to  natural  conditions  or 
to  give  the  greatest  strength  with  the  least  amount  of  material 
is  practicable  with  concrete  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  with 
large  masonry  blocks.  (See  PI.  VII.  D.)  It  is  possible  to  arrange 
machinery  so  that  it  can  crush  and  size  the  rock,  mix  it  with 
other  aggregates  and  have  a  continuous  process.  It  is  even 
possible  to  inclose  the  work  and  continue  construction  during 
extreme  weather  when  it  would  not  be  practicable  to  operate 
heavier  machinery. 

The  question  has  been  raised  for  investigation  as  to  whether 
it  is  preferable  to  attempt  to  place  in  the  concrete  large  dimen- 
sion stones  or  pieces  weighing  several  tons,  or  on  the  other  hand, 
to  reduce  all  of  the  stone  to  small  pieces  fairly  uniform  in  size 
and  to  handle  these  systematically  by  modern  high-power  and 
high-speed  machinery.  The  present  tendency  is  toward  a  sys- 
tematic organization  of  machinery  and  men  such  that  one  simple 
procedure  is  followed  day  and  night,  continuously  for  months 
from  the  time  the  structure  is  started  until  it  is  finished.  It  has 
been  found  that,  although  theoretically  at  least  there  might  be 
an  advantage  in  using  large  stones,  bedding  these  in  the  body  of 
the  dam,  yet,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  time  spent  in  quarrying 
and  conveying  these,  and  particularly  in  setting  or  bedding 
them  in  place,  interferes  with  the  otherwise  orderly  procedure 
so  that  the  gain  from  their  use  is  not  as  great  a  source  of 
economy  as  was  anticipated,  nor  is  it  apparent  that  the  strength 
of  the  structure  is  increased. 

In  most  instances  the  materials  in  the  quarry  available  for 
building  the  dam  are  of  such  character  that  the  obtaining  of 
large  blocks  is  a  matter  of  considerable  expense,  necessitating 


140  WATER  RESOURCES 

much  stripping  and  waste  of  material.  If  the  attempt  to  secure 
such  large  blocks  is  abandoned  and  the  firm  material  from  the 
quarry,  irrespective  of  size,  is  broken  up,  run  through  a  suitable 
crusher  and  selection  made  automatically  by  screens  and  other- 
wise of  suitable  small  pieces,  the  proportion  of  available  mate- 
rial is  greatly  increased;  there  is  less  waste  in  the  quarry  and 
in  the  subsequent  handling,  and  more  than  this,  the  machinery 
can  be  operated  at  a  relatively  steady  rate.  Thus  with  the 
development  of  machinery  and  effective  methods  of  organizing 
equipment  not  only  is  the  use  of  ashlar  or  rubble  masonry 
declining  rapidly  even  for  massive  structures,  but  also  the  use 
of  large  blocks  or  "plums"  in  concrete  is  decreasing  in  favor 
of  the  more  uniform  mixtures. 

As  yet  no  limit  has  been  set  to  the  size  and  height  of  struc- 
tures which  may  be  built  of  masonry,  and  particularly  of  con- 
crete. The  highest  dam  in  the  world,  so  far  as  known,  is  that 
built  by  the  Reclamation  Service  on  Boise  River  in  southern 
Idaho,  known  as  the  Arrowrock  Dam,  PL  VIII.  A,  350  feet  in 
height  and  1,100  feet  long  on  top.  This  is  a  curved  structure, 
of  gravity  section,  containing  585,000  cubic  yards  of  rubble 
concrete,  built  with  expansion  joints  and  with  inspection  gal- 
leries, PL  VIII.  B,  running  through  it  in  such  a  way  as  to 
permit  continuous  observation  of  the  behavior  of  the  dam, 
including  the  temperature  changes  and  percolation  which  may 
take  place. 

There  is  nothing  as  yet  developed  which  would  indicate  that 
the  limit  in  height  has  been  reached,  or  that  it  is  not  practi- 
cable, by  increasing  the  dimensions,  to  build  structures  of  even 
greater  size.  Theoretically  there  may  be  a  point  where  the 
hydrostatic  pressure  on  the  foundations  will  severely  test  the 
porosity  of  some  of  the  materials  employed,  but  it  is  proper 
to  assume  that  such  limitations  have  not  yet  been  reached,  and 
that  by  proportioning  the  structures  so  that  the  pressure  on 
the  base  will  not  be  excessive,  provisions  may  be  made  for  still 
higher  dams.  In  all  cases  care  must  be  exercised  in  securing 
proper  drainage  of  the  foundations  and  of  the  dam  itself,  so 
that  any  water  which  may  penetrate  the  foundations  or  get  into 


DAMS  141 

the  body  of  the  dam  may  escape  freely  without  accumulation 
of  upward  pressure  which  may  tend  to  lift  the  structure. 

For  relatively  long  and  high  dams  the  straight  gravity 
section  appears  to  be  the  best  type;  but  in  narrow  canyons  it 
is  possible  to  secure  higher  economy  of  material  combined  with 
safety  by  constructing  what  are  known  as  arched  structures. 
These  may  consist  of  a  single  arch,  PI.  VII.  D,  in  which  the 
radius  may  be  the  same  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the 
structure  or  in  which  greater  economy  in  material  may  be 
obtained  by  changing  the  length  of  the  radius  of  the  arch  so 
that  the  same  angle  is  subtended.  For  long  low  dams  the  so- 
called  buttress  type  may  be  more  economical  than  the  gravity. 
Among  these  may  be  included  the  multiple  arch  type  in  which 
there  is  a  combination  of  buttress  and  arch  usually  inclined  to 
the  horizontal.  There  is  much  yet  to  be  done  in  the  way  of 
research  and  study  of  economical  design  as  well  as  of  materials 
of  construction. 

GATES.  In  connection  with  every  reservoir  or  dam  for  hold- 
ing water,  provision  must  be  made  for  regulating  the  outflow 
so  that  the  stored  water  may  be  available  when  needed.  The 
character  and  position  of  the  outlet  are  determined  largely  by 
the  foundations  of  the  dam.  As  far  as  practicable  the  outlet 
and  gates  should  be  built  independently  of  the  dam  and  located 
in  solid  rock  so  as  not  to  introduce  points  of  weakness  in  the 
dam  itself.  The  ideal  condition  is  to  place  the  gates  on  solid 
rock  at  one  side  of  the  structure.  Occasionally,  however,  it  is 
necessary  to  build  these  through  or  in  the  body  of  the  dam  and 
in  such  case  great  care  must  be  used  to  prevent  water  from 
entering  the  material  or  percolating  along  the  conduit.  With 
earth  dams  the  outlet  should  be  placed  on  the  solid  undisturbed 
base  and  should  be  provided  with  cut-off  walls  to  prevent  water 
from  following  along  the  surface  of  the  outlet  pipe  or  tunnel. 
Many  failures  have  resulted  from  lack  of  suitable  care  in  this 
particular. 

The  types  of  gates  ordinarily  employed  are  vertically  sliding 
valves,  usually  rectangular  and  carried  on  friction  rollers.  For 
smaller  outlets  the  circular  valves  such  as  are  used  on  city  water 


142  WATER  RESOURCES 

pipes  are  employed  and  for  low  heads  or  emergency  outlets 
occasionally  the  hinged  butterfly  type  is  used. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  larger  valves  or  gates  leading  from 
the  reservoir  should  be  placed  and  operated  if  possible  in  such 
way  as  to  avoid  opening  them  when  under  a  pressure  or  head 
of  100  feet  or  more.  While  it  is  possible  to  open  or  close  them 
under  these  high  heads,  yet  the  erosive  action  of  the  sediment- 
bearing  waters  and  the  vibrations  set  up  introduce  so  many 
complications  or  dangers  that  with  deep  reservoirs  it  is  safer 
to  provide  methods  of  letting  out  water  at  various  elevations, 
gradually  letting  it  down  through  successively  lower  outlets  and 
using  the  lowest  outlet  only  when  the  water  level  has  sunk  below 
that  of  the  higher  gates.  One  of  the  latest  and  most  striking 
instances  of  this  arrangement  is  in  the  case  of  the  very  high 
Arrowrock  Dam  on  the  Boise  River  in  southern  Idaho.  Here 
the  gates  are  placed  in  a  series  at  various  elevations.  The 
highest  row  of  gates  or  valves  is  shown  in  PI.  VIII.  A  and  in 
PL  X.  A.  These  are  of  the  Ensign  type,  circular  in  form,  as 
shown  in  the  picture.  These  valves  are  operated  from  the 
gallery  inside  the  dam,  as  shown  in  PI.  VIII.  B,  the  operating 
cylinders  for  controlling  these  balance  valves  having  been  placed 
inside  the  dam  at  a  point  convenient  for  access;  at  the  same 
time  provision  is  made  for  inspecting  the  changes  which  may 
be  taking  place  on  the  interior  of  the  dam. 

As  a  rule  all  of  the  gates  for  the  outlets  through  or  over  a 
dam  are  placed  at  the  upper  end,  so  that  when  the  gates  are 
closed  water  is  excluded  from  the  pipes  or  conduits  within  the 
body  of  the  dam.  In  the  case  of  earthen  dams,  for  example, 
with  sloping  water  faces,  this  necessitates  the  building  of  an 
outlet  tower  rising  from  the  upper  toe  of  the  dam  and  thus 
standing  out  in  the  reservoir  when  water  rises  to  its  greatest 
height.  This  tower  is  connected  at  its  top  with  the  roadway 
on  the  dam  as  shown  in  PL  XI.  B  and  PL  XI.  D. 

SPILLWAYS.  In  making  plans  for  any  dam,  whether  masonry 
or  earth,  there  must  be  ample  provision  for  spillways  for  passing 
excess  water,  especially  that  of  unusual  floods.  In  the  case  of 
a  solid  masonry  or  concrete  dam  of  moderate  height,  the  entire 
crest  may  be  made  into  a  spillway,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  wiser  to 


Plate  VIII.  A. 

One  of  several  rows  of  sluice  gates  to  control  water  flowing  through  the 
Arrowrock  Dam,  Boise  Project,  Idaho. 


Plate  VIII.  B. 

Operating  cylinders  for  sluice  gates,  also  portion  of  inspection  gallery  in 
Arrowrock  Dam,  Boise  Project,  Idaho. 


Plate  VIII.  C. 

A  series  of  curved  spillway  sections  near  East  Park  Dam,  Orland  Project, 

California. 


Plate  VIII.  D. 

Erosion   at   lower   toe   of   Mexican   diversion   dam   on   Rio   Grande   above 

El  Paso,  Texas. 


DAMS  143 

provide  a  depression  or  low  point  of  overflow  at  some  little 
distance  from  the  dam,  so  that  the  water  of  great  floods  may 
not  be  able  to  attack  the  foundations  and  wear  away  the  sup- 
porting walls.  As  previously  noted,  it  is  absolutely  essential 
that  in  the  case  of  earthen  structures  the  spillway  be  of  such 
size  and  shape  as  to  render  it  impossible  for  water  ever  to  over- 
flow the  earthen  banks;  the  margin  of  safety  against  overtop- 
ping by  any  probable  flood  must  be  large.  Long-continued 
observations  of  river  flow  are  showing  that  there  is  possibility 
of  the  occurrence  of  floods  surpassing  those  recorded  in  previous 
years  and  that  in  these  matters  we  cannot  afford  to  take  any 
chances,  but  must  provide  maximum  flood  openings. 

Examples  of  spillways  are  given  in  the  accompanying  illus- 
trations ;  that  marked  PL  VIII.  C  shows  a  series  of  small,  verti- 
cal curved  dams  which  form  the  spillway  for  the  East  Park 
Reservoir  on  the  Orland  Project,  California.  The  reason  for 
adopting  this  shape  was  to  give  additional  length  to  the  spillway 
and  to  permit  a  larger  volume  of  water  to  escape  for  a  given 
increase  of  height  than  would  have  been  practicable  with  a  short 
straight  overflow  section.  The  form  also  gives  additional 
strength  to  the  work. 

In  PL  XVIII.  C  is  shown  a  similar  spillway  whose  plan  is  rec- 
tangular in  form,  being  arranged  in  this  way  to  enable  a  closer 
automatic  regulation  of  the  height  of  water  in  the  canal  below. 
These  and  other  spillways  are  of  great  importance  in  connection 
with  various  devices  for  regulation  of  river  flow.  They  have 
their  widest  application  on  streams  which  are  subject  to  rapid 
change  of  height  or  where  floods  may  occur  without  warning. 

RETARDING  DAMS.  A  type  of  dam  is  being  developed  in 
which  the  spillway  is  the  most  essential  feature  because  of  the 
fact  that  the  dam  is  built  for  the  purpose  of  providing  a  safe 
outlet,  in  contradistinction  to  the  fact  that  in  the  past  the 
spillway  has  been  built  merely  as  an  adjunct  to  the  dam.  In 
other  words,  retarding  dams  are  constructed  in  a  manner  such 
as  to  hold  back  any  sudden  flood  and  force  it  to  pass  through 
a  constricted  opening  or  over  a  spillway  with  a  limited  capacity 
so  that  only  a  part  of  the  flood  can  continue  immediately 
down  the  river.  Thus  the  flood  is  flattened  out,  removing  the 


144  WATER  RESOURCES 

dangerous  features,  and  high  water  is  prolonged,  the  flow  con- 
tinuing until  the  water  which  has  temporarily  accumulated 
behind  the  dam  is  able  to  pass  through  the  restricted  opening. 
The  reservoir  in  this  case  is  built  not  with  the  idea  of  holding 
the  water  for  use,  but  only  to  provide  temporary  storage  for  a 
few  days  at  most. 

The  important  part  played  by  retarding  dams  is  being  more 
and  more  appreciated  as  the  results  of  study  of  them  are  made 
available.  At  first  when  it  was  assumed  that  the  reservoir 
must  or  should  be  used  for  storing  water  for  long  periods  of 
time,  the  conception  of  the  retarding  dam  was  ignored.  Now, 
however,  there  is  a  better  grasp  of  the  subject  and  the  value 
of  this  character  of  work  is  being  made  known  on  a  true  basis.1 

FAILURES.  A  successful  dam  teaches  few  lessons.  The  fact 
that  it  stands  shows  that  it  has  been  strong  enough  to  meet  the 
conditions  to  which  it  has  been  exposed,  but  as  to  whether  it  is 
unnecessarily  strong  or  is  on  the  verge  of  failure  no  one  can 
demonstrate.  Whenever  a  dam  fails,  however,  the  loss  is  not 
only  great,  but  incidentally  the  lesson  to  be  learned  is  valuable. 
It  is  important,  therefore,  that  each  case  of  failure  be  studied 
and  deductions  made  for  guidance  in  other  works.  When  com- 
pared with  the  number  of  successes  the  failures  have  been  rela- 
tively small,  but  nevertheless  they  are  deplorable  through  loss 
of  life  and  property.  The  principal  cause  has  been  weakness 
of  foundations  or  carelessness  in  making  a  water-tight  joint 
under  the  dam.  Next  to  this  has  been  the  overtopping  of  earth 
dams  due  to  lack  of  provision  of  ample  spillway  capacity. 

i  See  Engineering  News,  December  7,  1916,  p.  1093,  where  in  connection 
with  the  Miami,  Ohio,  flood  prevention  project  it  is  stated: 

"Not  less  important  is  the  court's  declaration  that  retarding  dams  com- 
bined with  channel  improvement  furnish  for  the  Miami  Valley  the  only 
practicable  and  complete  protection  from  floods;  again  there  is  opportunity 
for  reflection  by  engineers.  Flood  prevention  by  reservoirs  has  been  under 
a  cloud — and  for  that  matter  is  today  under  a  cloud,  and  with  good  reason. 
The  proposal  to  provide  empty  space  for  flood  water  and  yet  keep  that 
space  full  of  water  for  other  use  has  proved  very  difficult  to  defend.  But 
temporary  impounding  of  flood  waters,  applied  with  patiently  calculated 
precision  and  properly  adjusted  to  the  other  variables  of  the  problem  can 
accomplish  the  best  and  cheapest  flood  control  for  the  Miami  Valley,  for 
the  Scioto  Valley  and  perhaps  for  some  other  locations.  This  is  a  new 
fact." 


DAMS  145 

In  many  cases  the  failures  were  the  result  of  neglect  after 
the  structure  was  completed,  such  neglect  being  shown  in  lack 
of  attention  to  the  protection  of  the  foundation  or  in  permitting 
the  spillway  to  be  clogged.  In  the  case,  for  example,  of  the 
Austin,  Tex.,  Dam,  the  gradual  undercutting  at  the  base 
was  generally  known  but  was  not  given  attention  and  in  an  ex- 
treme high  water  the  dam  slid  forward  into  the  hole  excavated 
in  part  during  a  preceding  flood.  Such  undermining  of  the 
toe  is  illustrated  by  the  accompanying  PL  VIII.  D  of  the 
diversion  dam  built  by  Mexicans  above  the  city  of  El  Paso, 
Tex.,  showing  how  the  water  flowing  over  the  dam  has  cut 
away  the  protection  at  the  lower  side.  This  is  probably  a 
condition  which  has  existed  prior  to  many  of  the  failures  of 
dams,  but  by  being  concealed  by  standing  water  has  not  been 
given  proper  attention. 

As  shown  by  a  study  of  dams  which  have  failed,  the  weakest 
point  in  their  construction  or  the  one  important  matter  which 
has  been  most  frequently  neglected  is  that  of  making  a  water-  <^ 
tight  joint  beneath  the  dam  such  as  to  prevent  seepage  under 
the  structure.  Over  half  of  the  recently  recorded  failures  of 
dams  have  been  caused  directly  by  seepage  through  the  founda- 
tions. All  failures  of  reinforced  concrete  dams  have  been  from 
the  escape  of  water  beneath  the  foundation  and  subsequent 
undermining.  Many  of  these  failures  occur  because  cut-off 
walls  were  not  carried  deep  enough,  but  in  most  cases  there  was 
little  or  no  attempt  to  build  cut-off  walls  and  seepage  occurred 
through  fissured  rock  which  was  supposed  to  be  sufficiently 
impervious  to  retain  the  water. 

Next  in  importance  is  the  construction  of  ample  wasteways. 
Neglect  of  this  precaution  has  resulted  in  an  excessive  head  of 
water  against  the  dam,  with  an  accompanying  pressure  greater 
than  that  for  which  the  structure  was  designed.  The  size  of  the 
wasteways  was  based  upon  an  assumption  as  to  volume  of  flood 
flow  entirely  too  small,  overlooking  the  fact  that  the  floods 
which  had  actually  been  measured  were  by  no  means  repre- 
sentative of  the  possibilities  which  might  occur.  In  many 
instances  the  engineer  feared  to  invite  the  ridicule  of  so-called 
"practical"  men  by  building  wasteways  several  times  as  large 


146  WATER  RESOURCES 

as  would  have  been  necessary  to  pass  the  normal  floods.  Or  to 
put  it  another  way,  he  did  not  insist  upon  a  factor  of  safety 
sufficiently  great  to  take  care  of  the  extraordinary  floods  of 
a  century. 

Lack  of  proper  care  in  the  maintenance  of  the  works  is  the 
cause  of  many  disasters.  For  example,  the  failure  of  the  hollow 
reinforced  concrete  dam  of  the  city  of  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  was 
apparently  due  to  the  destruction  of  the  foundations  after 
several  weeks  of  neglect.  (See  Engineering  News,  Vol.  75, 
June  8,  1916,  page  1006.)  In  order  to  save  expenses  the 
public  officials  decided  some  time  before  the  dam  failed  to  do 
away  with  a  city  engineer  as  an  expensive  and  unnecessary 
officer ;  thus  apparently  no  one  was  responsible  for  the  dam  and 
little  is  known  as  to  just  what  happened.  The  responsibility 
appears  to  rest  on  the  city  officials  for  disregarding  the  condi- 
tion of  the  dam  which  was  known  to  be  leaking,  and  for  at- 
tempting to  plug  up  the  holes  which  were  giving  warning  of 
danger. 

Careful  investigation  should  be  made  as  to  the  cause  of  each 
failure  of  water  control  or  storage  works  and  an  analysis  made 
of  the  causes.  The  results  of  such  study  have  peculiar  value 
as  a  guide  in  future  construction  and  also  as  a  means  of  reliev- 
ing the  apprehension  of  the  public  regarding  dangers  of  such 
work.  If  it  can  be  shown  that  in  each  case  of  failure  there  was 
some  peculiar  condition  which  need  not  be  repeated,  then  the 
public  mind  may  be  set  at  rest  to  that  extent.  Without  definite 
explanation  there  is  apt  to  be  a  blind,  unreasoning  prejudice 
against  work  of  this  kind.  Reference  should  be  made  to  the 
action  of  the  Conservancy  Court  in  connection  with  the  Miami, 
Ohio,  Flood  Protection  Project  as  noted  in  Engineering  News, 
December  7,  1916,  p.  1093,  where  it  is  stated: 

"Earth  Dams  are  safe.  The  judges  in  the  Miami  case  carefully 
and  deliberately  state  their  conviction  of  this  fact.  They  reject  the 
searching  and  persistent  criticism  of  such  dams,,  which  the  opposi- 
tion put  forward.  Their  opinion,  formed  after  hearing  elaborate 
evidence  on  every  possible  phase  of  this  subject.,  is  a  salutary  lesson 
to  many  an  engineer. 

"Bridges  are  safe,  though  some  bridges  have  failed.  Buildings 
are  safe,  though  wretched  design  and  bad  work  made  many  a  wreck. 


DAMS 


147 


Dams  are  safe,  though  quackery  and  incompetence  and  neglect  have 
brought  about  many  a  washout. 

"The  judges  did  not  ask:  May  not  a  weak  dam  fail.  They  were 
willing  to  venture  their  own  lives  and  the  lives  and  property  of 
their  neighbors  on  the  assumption  that  good  dams  would  be  built. 
And  assuming  good  dams,  they  declared  that  the  dams  would  be  safe 
and  of  sufficient  strength  to  sustain  at  all  times  any  burden  that  may 
be  placed  upon  them  by  impounded  water.  Many  an  engineer  can 
study  with  profit  this  calm  and  deliberate  statement  made  by  lay- 
men after  weighing  the  merits  of  affirmative  and  negative  in  a 
lengthy  battle  of  fact  and  opinion." 

The  literature  on  the  construction  of  dams  is  quite  volumi- 
nous— notably  the  articles  in  the  technical  journals  and  in  the 
transactions  or  proceedings  of  the  Engineering  Societies  of 
various  countries.  One  of  the  most  complete  statements  is  a 
treatise  by  Edward  Wegmann1  in  which  he  discusses  the  dis- 
tribution of  pressure  and  gives  practical  profits,  with  descrip- 
tions of  important  dams  throughout  the  world,  also  an  excellent 
bibliography. 

i  Wegmann,  Edward,  C.  E.,  "The  Design  and  Construction  of  Dams,  in- 
cluding Masonry,  Earth,  Rock-fill,  Timber,  and  Steel  Structures,  also  the 
Principal  Type  of  Movable  Dams,"  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  six  editions. 


SECTION 

Figure  5.    Comparison  of  Roosevelt  Dam  with  Capitol  at  Washington. 


CHAPTER  IX 
NOTABLE  WORKS 

RECLAMATION  SERVICE.  The  great  works  which  are  yet  to 
be  built  and  operated  for  the  benefit  of  mankind  are  best  advo- 
cated by  the  showing  of  what  has  been  accomplished.  The 
achievement  of  the  national  government  in  conserving  flood  or 
waste  waters  and  in  converting  parts  of  the  desert  into  pros- 
perous farms  is  both  proof  and  prophecy  of  what  can  and 
should  be  done  on  a  larger  scale.  For  this  reason  space  may 
well  be  given  here  to  a  brief  description  of  some  of  the  larger 
dams  built  by  the  United  States  Reclamation  Service.  These 
have  been  made  possible  by  the  use  of  the  data  already  de- 
scribed; they  embody  many  of  the  principles  which  have  been 
the  subject  of  research  such  as  noted  in  previous  pages.  They 
serve  to  demonstrate  the  fact  that  other  storage  works  may 
be  built  safely  and  efficiently  in  many  different  localities,  using 
an  almost  infinite  variety  of  materials  and  methods.  Among 
the  best  known  of  these  are  the  Roosevelt,  notable  for  its  size; 
the  Shoshone,  for  some  time  the  highest  dam  in  the  world;  the 
Pathfinder,  built  in  its  granite  gorge;  the  Arrowrock,  now  the 
highest  dam;  the  Elephant  Butte,  remarkable  for  its  straight 
gravity  section ;  and  others  of  earth  and  concrete  each  adapted 
to  meet  the  surrounding  limitations. 

Before  entering  into  these  engineering  details,  it  is  desirable 
to  give  a  note  of  explanation  of  the  United  States  Reclamation 
Service.  This  organization,  under  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
of  the  United  States,  was  created  by  Act  of  Congress,  June 
17,  1902,  for  the  purpose  of  survey,  examination,  construc- 
tion, and  operation  of  works  for  the  reclamation  by  irri- 
gation of  arid  and  semiarid  lands.  Funds  were  provided  in 
the  act  by  setting  aside  the  proceeds  of  the  disposal  of  public 
lands  which  from  1902  to  1919  aggregated  over  $100,000,000. 


NOTABLE  WORKS  149 

This  amount  has  been  supplemented  by  an  additional  loan  of 
$20,000,000 — all  of  which  has  been  spent  in  works  for  con- 
servation of  water  by  storage  and  the  distribution  of  the  stored 
supply  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States. 

The  necessity  for  this  law  arose  from  the  fact  that  the  western 
two-fifths  of  the  United  States  consists  in  great  part  of  public 
land.  The  conditions  of  aridity  are  such  that  only  a  very  small 
portion  of  this  land  can  be  utilized  for  agriculture.  Attempts 
made  by  individuals  and  organizations  to  irrigate  the  lands, 
although  successful  from  an  agricultural  standpoint  and  from 
that  of  the  development  of  the  country,  were  not  profitable  to 
the  investor,  hence  the  development  and  the  use  of  the  resources 
of  the  West  were  not  progressing  rapidly.  It  became  appre- 
ciated about  1900  that  further  progress  could  not  be  expected 
without  direct  effort  on  the  part  of  the  federal  government,  the 
owner  of  the  great  body  of  the  arid  public  lands.  The  objec- 
tion to  making  direct  appropriations  for  improving  these  lands 
was  met  by  the  ingenious  plan  proposed  by  the  late  Senator, 
then  Representative  from  Nevada,  Francis  G.  Newlands,  to  the 
effect  that  money  derived  from  the  disposal  of  portions  of  the 
land  should  be  used  in  reclaiming  other  portions. 

The  Reclamation  Service  was  an  outgrowth  of  the  work  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey.  The  latter  bureau  was 
authorized  by  Congress  in  March,  1888,  to  investigate  the 
extent  to  which  the  arid  region  might  be  reclaimed,  this  action 
being  taken  largely  through  the  effort  of  the  then  director,  John 
Wesley  Powell.  The  investigations  were  made  by  what  was 
known  as  the  Hydrographic  Branch,  measurements  of  water 
supply  in  many  streams  being  begun  and  also  surveys  of  possible 
reservoir  sites.  The  information  thus  obtained  and  widely  dif- 
fused laid  the  foundations  for  a  presentation  of  the  needs  and 
opportunities  of  water  conservation  and  furnished  the  facts  for 
action  by  Congress,  taken  in  accordance  with  the  recommenda- 
tion of  President  Theodore  Roosevelt  in  his  first  message  in 
1901.  As  organized  immediately  on  the  passage  of  the  Act 
of  June  17,  1902,  the  work  was  under  a  chief  engineer,  F.  H. 
Newell,  who  continued  in  charge,  reporting  to  the  director  of 
the  Geological  Survey  until  1907,  when  the  service  became  a 


150  WATER  RESOURCES 

separate  bureau  and  the  chief  engineer  was  then  made  director, 
reporting  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

Under  the  original  organization,  plans  were  prepared  during 
the  years  1902  to  1907  for  works  whose  completion  has  re- 
quired all  of  the  funds  which  would  be  available  from  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  disposal  of  public  lands  for  a  decade  or  more. 
These  plans  were  so  drawn  as  to  permit  expansion  to  the  full 
limit  of  the  available  water  supply  in  each  locality.  The  work 
was  undertaken  in  such  manner  as  to  enable  completed  portions 
of  each  project  to  be  utilized  before  all  parts  were  finished.  It 
was  also  considered  wise  to  start  work  on  a  broad  basis  in  a 
number  of  localities  rather  than  to  concentrate  it  in  a  few  places, 
because  by  so  doing  a  more  nearly  normal  growth  of  each  pro- 
ject was  possible.  This  line  of  procedure  was  in  contrast  to 
the  attempts  made  by  private  investors  to  complete  one  large 
project  and  then  operate  it  as  a  whole  without  having  had  the 
advantage  of  experience  acquired  through  the  slow  growth  of 
the  component  parts.  Most  of  the  works  thus  planned  from 
1902  to  1907  have  been  brought  to  a  degree  of  completion  such 
that  a  large  part  of  the  land  is  being  utilized. 

The  principal  works  are  those  for  storage  of  flood  or  waste 
waters  and  for  conducting  the  waters  thus  made  available  from 
the  natural  streams  to  the  lands  to  be  watered.  Besides  the 
storage  dams,  many  diversion  dams  have  been  built  in  the  rivers, 
turning  the  water  into  large  canals  which  divide  and  subdivide 
into  smaller  distributaries  or  laterals  leading  to  each  farm.  In 
these  canals  and  at  each  outlet,  gates  are  provided  to  control  the 
water;  there  are  also  flumes,  pipe  lines,  bridges,  culverts,  as 
well  as  almost  innumerable  other  structures,  each  requiring 
engineering  skill  in  its  construction  and  maintenance. 

STORAGE  WORKS.  For  the  purpose  of  storing  flood  water 
over  fifty  noteworthy  dams  have  been  built  by  the  Reclamation 
Service.  They  are  listed  and  described  in  the  annual  reports 
of  that  bureau  and  are  discussed  at  some  length  in  several 
recently  issued  books1  and  engineering  publications.  In  the 

i  Davis,  Arthur  Powell,  "Irrigation  Works  Constructed  by  the  United 
States  Government,"  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York,  1917,  pp.  413,  illus- 
trated. 

James,  George  Wharton,  "Reclaiming  the  Arid  West.    The  Story  of  the 


•^  "^*^^T     ii^ii 


Plate  IX.  A. 

Sheep  grazing  along  canal  in  vicinity  of  Huntley,  Montana,  illustrating  how 
they  may  be  used  to  keep  down  the  weeds  on  canal  banks. 


Plate  IX.  B. 
Tunnel  for  diversion  of  North  Platte  River  at  Pathfinder  Dam,  Wyoming. 


m 


Plate  IX.  C. 
Shoshone  Dam,  Wyoming,  as  seen  from  water  side  before  completion. 


Plate  IX.  D. 

Part  of  reservoir  created  by  Shoshone  Dam,  Wyoming,  with  wagon  road 
around  side  of  reservoir  leading  to  Yellowstone  National  Park. 


NOTABLE  WORKS  151 

aggregate,  it  appears  that  upwards  of  20,000,000  cubic  yards 
of  earth,  rock  and  concrete  have  been  handled  in  the  construc- 
tion of  these.  They  range  in  height  from  50  to  350  feet  and  in 
length  along  the  crest  from  500  to  over  7,000  feet.  The  reser- 
voirs created  by  these  dams  have  an  area  of  from  about  1,000 
acres  up  to  40,000  acres  and  a  capacity  of  from  10,000  to  over  a 
million  acre-feet.  They  thus  cover  a  wide  range  of  conditions 
and  afford  examples,  for  future  emulation,  of  methods  success- 
fully adopted  in  meeting  and  overcoming  various  difficulties. 

The  wide  diversity  in  quantity  of  run-off  per  square  mile 
available  for  storage  in  various  reservoirs  is  notable.  This  is 
partly  due  to  the  great  variation  of  yield,  from  year  to  year, 
of  the  arid  region  streams.  The  run-off  of  any  one  year  or 
the  mean  of  a  few  years  may  differ  widely  from  the  average  of 
a  10-  or  20-year  period.  The  principal  reason,  however,  for 
the  great  diversity  in  quantity  of  water  which  may  be  held  is 
that  some  of  the  reservoirs  are  near  the  headwaters  with  catch- 
ment areas  on  which  is  a  heavy  rain-  and  snowfall  while  others 
are  so  located  as  to  receive  the  meager  and  erratic  drainage 
from  a  large  extent  of  low-lying,  arid  land. 

COST  AND,  VALUE.  In  connection  with  these  reservoirs,  the 
most  interesting  item,  perhaps,  is  the  cost  as  compared  with 
the  benefits  received  directly  and  indirectly.  In  the  case  of  the 
Roosevelt  Reservoir  in  Arizona,  where  stored  water  has  great 
value,  the  capacity  for  storage  or  quantity  which  may  be  had 
each  year  has  cost  at  the  rate  of  $7.76  per  acre-foot.  The 
lowest  expenditures  are  naturally  in  the  case  of  preexisting 
lakes  which  have  been  utilized,  this  being  for  Lake  Tahoe  only 
$1  per  acre-foot.  The  highest  cost  of  stored  water  is  for  the 
smaller  artificial  reservoirs,  the  large  expenditure  upon  which 
has  been  justified  by  some  special  circumstance. 

In  considering  the  cost  and  value  of  any  reservoir  for  con- 
serving water,  it  is  necessary  to  make  allowance  for  losses.  It 
is  obvious  that  the  full  amount  of  water  delivered  to  a  reservoir 
cannot  be  depended  upon  as,  under  ordinary  conditions,  it  is 
impossible  to  draw  out  as  much  water  as  has  been  put  in.  The 

United  States  Reclamation  Service,"  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  New  York,  1917, 
pp.  411,  illustrated. 


152  WATER  RESOURCES 

losses  are  of  two  principal  kinds :  first,  that  by  evaporation  from 
the  surface;  and  second,  that  by  seepage  from  the  bottom  and 
sides.  The  seepage  loss  may  be  reduced  and  in  time  may  become 
negligible,  but  the  evaporation  losses  are  practically  perma- 
nent (see  page  65),  and  although  the  quantity  varies  from  sea- 
son to  season,  yet  it  is  always  a  considerable  part  of  the  water 
received.  This  amount  may  be  measured  by  apparatus  similar 
to  that  described  on  page  70,  a  standard  evaporation  pan  being 
placed  on  or  as  near  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  reservoir  as 
possible  and  maintained  at  the  same  temperature. 

Knowing  the  average  amount  of  water  available  each  year 
for  a  reservoir  and  its  cubical  contents,  it  might  be  supposed 
that  the  problem  as  to  the  amount  to  be  delivered  from  the 
reservoir  would  be  a  simple  arithmetical  computation.  This  is 
not  always  the  case  because  of  the  fact  that  the  water  flowing 
into  the  reservoir  varies  in  quantity  from  season  to  season  and 
a  statement  of  averages  may  be  quite  misleading.  Moreover, 
the  demand  upon  the  reservoir  is  not  constant  and  may  occur 
at  times  when  the  basin  is  partly  empty,  and  then  it  cannot  be 
fully  met.  The  capability  of  the  reservoir  to  deliver  water  or 
what  may  be  called  its  working  capacity  can  be  ascertained 
only  by  making  certain  assumptions  followed  by  somewhat 
elaborate  computations  based  upon  these. 

In  making  these  estimates  of  the  working  capacity  of  a  reser- 
voir, it  is  desirable  to  take  into  consideration  separately  each 
day  or  period  of  a  week  or  ten  days,  and  for  this  period  the 
probable  inflow  during  that  time,  deducting  the  probable  losses, 
and  from  this  to  compute  the  total  amount  of  water  left  in  the 
reservoir  at  the  end  of  this  day  or  week.  If  the  reservoir  is 
full  to  overflowing  there  cannot,  of  course,  be  any  added  accumu- 
lation. At  such  time  also  the  losses  by  evaporation  and  seepage 
are  at  a  maximum.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  reservoir  is  nearly 
or  quite  empty,  the  losses  will  be  at  the  minimum  and  the  reser- 
voir can  probably  hold  all  of  the  water  which  flows  in  during 
that  time. 

By  these  computations  there  is  built  up  a  series  of  estimates 
which  follow  as  closely  as  possible  the  fluctuations  and  which 
take  account  of  conditions  which  are  not  revealed  if  reliance  is 


NOTABLE  WORKS  153 

placed  on  seasonal  or  annual  averages.  For  example,  if  it  is 
assumed  that  during  the  year  100,000  acre- feet  are  received 
in  the  reservoir  and  the  loss  by  evaporation  and  seepage  is 
10,000  acre- feet,  then  there  should  be  available  90,000  acre- 
feet.  This  amount  can  be  held  in  a  reservoir  of  a  capacity  of, 
say,  50,000  acre-feet  if  drawn  out  steadily  during  the  irrigation 
season  and  at  the  same  time  replenished  by  summer  floods.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  greater  part  of  this  100,000  acre- 
feet  might  occur  early  in  the  season  before  it  was  needed  for 
irrigation  and  would  thus  pass  through  the  reservoir,  bringing 
in  great  quantities  of  silt  and  being  unavailable  at  the  time  when 
most  needed.  Moreover,  the  losses  by  evaporation  would  be 
greatly  affected  by  the  time  at  which  the  water  filled  the  reser- 
voir. For  these  and  other  reasons  it  is  important  that  these 
shorter  periods  be  used  in  our  computations  in  order  that  we 
may  properly  take  into  account  the  fluctuations,  time  of  occur- 
rence and  uses  of  the  water. 

ROOSEVELT  RESERVOIR.  This  is  one  of  the  best-known  and 
most  important  of  the  works  built  by  the  government  under  the 
terms  of  the  Reclamation  Act.  The  structure  shown  in  Pis. 
I.  B  and  II.  C  is  about  70  miles  east  of  Phoenix,  the  capital  of 
Arizona,  and  consists  of  a  rubble  masonry,  curved  dam  located 
in  the  river  canyon  with  a  height  of  280  feet  and  a  length  on  the 
crest  of  1,125  feet.  The  relative  height  of  the  dam  as  compared 
with  the  capitol  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  is  shown  on  Fig.  5. 

The  reservoir  formed  by  the  dam  has  a  capacity  of  1,365,000 
acre- feet  and  covers  16,800  acres.  It  was  first  filled  in  April, 
1915,  over  four  years  after  the  completion  of  the  dam.  A 
series  of  unusual  storms  then  caused  the  stored  water  to  over- 
flow the  spillways,  as  shown  in  PI.  II.  C.  The  excess  flood  was 
disposed  of  without  harmful  effect,  leaving  in  storage  sufficient 
to  insure  a  supply  for  several  years.  The  water  is  utilized  to 
irrigate  nearly  200,000  acres  of  land  in  the  vicinity  of  Phoenix. 
The  stream  flow  records,  conducted  fo-r  twenty-five  years,  show 
an  extremely  erratic  run-off  and  indicate  that  the  reservoir  may 
be  filled  by  floods  at  irregular  periods  with  an  occasional  series 
of  low  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  may  be  nearly  empty, 
causing  temporary  shortage  of  water.  This  will  then  necessi- 


154  WATER  RESOURCES 

tate  strict  economy  in  irrigation.  Such  shortage  may  be  a 
benefit  rather  than  an  injury,  as  it  will  tend  to  reduce  the  waste 
and  prevent  destruction  of  the  lowlands  by  overirrigation. 

As  an  incidental  benefit  in  the  conservation  of  this  flood 
water  is  the  creation  of  hydro-electric  power.  As  the  water 
is  drawn  from  behind  the  dam  for  conveyance  down  the  river 
to  the  arid  lands  a  large  amount  of  power  is  generated,  the 
quantity  depending  upon  the  height  of  water  in  the  reservoir 
and  the  volume  turned  out.  There  are  four  hydro-electric  units, 
with  capacities  varying  from  1,000  to  5,000  kilowatts.  A  por- 
tion of  this  power  is  used  for  pumping,  but  the  greater  part  is 
sold  and  the  returns  credited  to  the  cost  of  the  plant. 

The  stored  water  when  released  passes  down  the  canyons  for 
about  50  miles  to  the  Granite  Reef  diversion  dam,  where  it  is 
forced  to  flow  into  canal  systems  on  the  north  and  south  banks  of 
the  river.  These  include  over  800  miles  of  main  canals  and 
laterals  bringing  water  to  nearly  5,000  farms.  Along  these 
canals  at  several  points  hydro-electric  plants  have  been  built 
to  utilize  the  falls  which  have  been  necessary  because  of  the 
slope  of  the  country. 

The  total  investment  in  this  complete  system  of  water  con- 
servation by  storage  and  distribution  of  water  and  power  is 
approximately  $11,500,000.  This  will  be  repaid  to  the  United 
States  by  annual  installments  from  the  farmers  whose  lands 
are  benefited.  Although  the  system  has  hardly  been  com- 
pleted, yet  crops  of  a  gross  value  of  over  $18,000,000  were 
harvested  in  1918  and  the  increase  of  taxable  property  in  the 
community  due  to  the  building  of  the  works  has  been  at  least 
five  times  the  original  cost. 

The  area  supplied  with  water  from  the  Roosevelt  Reservoir 
is  known  as  the  Salt  River  Project.  The  characteristic  feature 
of  this  project,  which  distinguishes  it  from  other  enterprises  of 
the  Reclamation  Service,  is  the  warm  climate  which,  where 
water  is  obtainable,  renders  crop  production  possible  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  year.  The  number  and  value  of  the 
crops  justify  a  relatively  large  expenditure  for  the  storage 
of  water  and  necessitate  a  high  degree  of  economy  in  its  use. 
In  this  respect  the  project  is  similar  to  the  costly  private  works 


NOTABLE  WORKS  155 

in  southern  California,  where  water  for  irrigation  has  its  great- 
est value  as  compared  with  any  other  part  of  the  United  States, 
and  where  during  each  succeeding  decade  larger  and  larger 
sums  are  being  expended  in  conserving  the  scanty  supply. 

The  engineering  problems  are  those  which  grow  out  of  the 
necessity  of  attempting  to  control  a  river  which  is  not  only 
erratic  in  its  floods,  but  which  apparently  has  a  cycle*  of  wet 
and  dry  years,  more  distinctly  marked  in  this  case  than  has 
been  made  apparent  on  other  rivers  on  which  reclamation  works 
have  been  built.  This  results  in  the  necessity  of  considering 
storage  not  merely  for  the  current  year,  but  with  relation  to 
the  series  of  dry  years  which  have  been  known  to  exist,  following 
seasons  during  which  floods  have  occurred  with  more  or  less 
regularity.  Consideration  has  been  given  to  the  question  as  to 
whether  storage  should  be  provided  adequate  only  to  handle 
the  floods  which  occur  during  the  low  years,  or  whether  the 
expense  would  be  justified  of  building  a  reservoir  capable  of 
holding  larger  floods,  and  with  the  probability  that  it  would 
not  be  filled  during  the  succession  of  low  years.  In  working  out 
any  plan  it  was  necessary  to  meet  certain  conditions  of  human 
origin,  namely,  the  existence  of  irrigating  canals  built  by  the 
irrigators  acting  individually  or  in  cooperation,  or  by  investors 
hoping  to  secure  a  profit  on  the  sale  of  water  rights  and  of 
lands. 

Salt  River  Valley  includes  the  lands  in  southern  Arizona, 
extending  from  the  point  where  Salt  River  emerges  from  the 
mountains  near  the  mouth  of  Verde  River,  its  principal  tribu- 
tary, to  the  locality  where  Salt  River  flows  into  the  Gila,  a  tribu- 
tary of  Colorado  River.  Irrigation  was  carried  on  in  this  valley 
in  prehistoric  times  by  ancient  peoples  whose  canal  lines  have 
been  nearly  obliterated.  The  river  has  a  decided  fall,  so  that 
water  can  be  diverted  at  almost  any  point  and  carried  diago- 
nally away  from  the  stream,  covering  considerable  land  within  a 
short  distance  from  the  point  of  diversion. 

The  first  use  of  water  for  irrigation  by  white  men  was  in 
1868,  through  the  Salt  River  Valley  Canal.  From  this  time  on 
the  building  of  new  works  continued  rapidly  until  the  combined 
capacity  of  the  canals  was  far  in  excess  of  the  normal  low  water 


156  WATER  RESOURCES 

flow  of  the  river,  their  construction  having  been  induced  by  a 
superficial  consideration  of  the  series  of  years  of  abnormally 
high  run-off  between  1888  and  1897.  Following  that  period 
the  reverse  occurred,  and  for  over  six  years  general  drought 
conditions  prevailed,  resulting  in  the  destruction  of  valuable 
orchards,  vineyards  and  alfalfa  fields,  stimulating  active  efforts 
on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley  to  secure  the  con- 
struction of  storage  reservoirs. 

The  original  plan  of  the  Reclamation  Service  in  accordance 
with  the  then  needs  was  simply  to  build  a  reservoir,  leaving  the 
companies  and  associations  operating  the  canals  in  the  valley 
to  enlarge  and  extend  them  later  as  needed  for  the  delivery  of 
additional  water  supply.  A  great  flood  in  1905,  however, 
destroyed  the  diversion  dam  and  otherwise  injured  the  works  of 
the  Arizona  Water  Company,  which  controlled  all  the  canals  on 
the  north  side  of  Salt  River.  The  inability  of  the  company  to 
promptly  repair  the  works  led  to  their  purchase  by  the  Rec- 
lamation Service  and  to  the  subsequent  reconstruction  of  the 
diversion  and  distribution  system. 

As  worked  out,  the  Salt  River  Project  includes  the  largest 
hydro-economic  system  practicable:  viz.,  a  storage  reservoir, 
a  large,  concrete  diverting  dam,  with  sluices  and  headworks  on 
each  side  of  the  river,  a  complete  system  of  canals  and  laterals 
to  cover  over  200,000  acres  of  land,  and  a  power  plant  at  the 
Roosevelt  Dam  with  a  transmission  line  to  bring  the  electric 
power  to  the  valley  below,  where  it  joins  other  power  develop- 
ments on  the  canals,  and  is  used  in  pumping  underground  waters 
and  for  similar  purposes. 

PATHFINDER.  The  Pathfinder  Dam  and  reservoir  on  North 
Platte  River  in  central  Wyoming  is  of  particular  interest  as 
illustrative  of  excellent  natural  conditions  for  conservation  of 
water  by  storage  and  of  certain  problems  which  arise  in  con- 
nection with  such  an  enterprise.  The  dam  is  of  simple  gravity 
section,  built  of  granite  quarried  from  the  immediate  vicinity. 
The  river  at  the  point  has  cut  its  way  through  a  mass  of  gran- 
ite and  unlike  many  other  gorges  in  the  arid  region  the  ancient 
river  channel  has  not  been  deeply  buried.  Thus  it  only  required 
excavation  of  the  loose  debris  to  a  depth  of  not  to  exceed  ten 


NOTABLE  WORKS  157 

feet  to  reach  the  solid  granite  bottom.  The  gorge  itself  in  which 
the  dam  is  built  is  narrow,  and  with  vertical  walls,  as  shown  in 
PI.  VI.  A.  The  diversion  of  the  river  was  easily  accomplished 
through  a  tunnel  located  on  the  north  or  right  hand  side  looking 
downstream.  A  view  of  the  tunnel  is  shown  on  PI.  IX.  B.  In 
this  tunnel  have  been  placed  gates  for  controlling  the  outflow 
of  the  reservoir.  During  construction  the  river  was  diverted 
through  this  tunnel  and  when  the  dam  was  partly  completed  the 
tunnel  gates  were  closed,  enabling  flood  water  to  be  held  in  the 
reservoir. 

A  short  distance  upstream  the  valley  widens  and  affords 
space  for  a  storage  reservoir  of  over  22,000  acres,  in  which 
nearly  the  entire  discharge  of  the  river  can  be  held  from  the 
time  of  the  spring  floods  to  the  dry  period  of  summer.  After 
the  completion  of  the  dam  it  was  found  advisable  to  build  a 
higher  outlet  than  the  one  originally  provided,  on  account  of 
the  excessive  erosion  of  the  controlling  device  under  the  high 
heads  when  operating  with  the  reservoir  nearly  full.  As  com- 
pleted the  masonry  dam  is  218  feet  high  and  432  feet  in  length 
along  the  crest.  A  short  distance  to  the  south  of  the  dam  a 
dyke  has  been  built  to  raise  the  level  of  the  reservoir  and  pre- 
vent water  overflowing  a  gravel  ridge  which  extends  south  from 
the  granite  gorge  above  described.  This  ridge  closes  what  is 
apparently  an  ancient  channel  or  depression. 

The  stored  water  held  in  this  reservoir  in  central  Wyoming 
is  permitted  to  escape  as  needed  and  is  recaptured  by  what  is 
known  as  the  Whalen  diversion  dam,  over  150  miles  down- 
stream and  at  the  head  of  the  Interstate  Canal  in  eastern 
Wyoming.  This  has  a  capacity  of  1,400  cubic  feet  per  second, 
is  nearly  100  miles  long,  extends  into  western  Nebraska  and 
serves  about  130,000  acres  in  the  states  of  Wyoming  and 
Nebraska.  On  the  opposite  or  south  side  of  the  river  is  under 
construction  a  similar  large  canal  known  as  the  Ft.  Laramie, 
intended  to  water  100,000  acres.  .  Besides  supplying  the  two 
large  government  canals  with  water  for  the  230,000  acres,  above 
noted,  the  Pathfinder  Reservoir  provides  water  in  ordinary  years 
to  supplement  the  supply  of  a  number  of  private  older  canals 
along  the  river.  The  cost  of  the  reservoir  is,  in  round  numbers, 


158  WATER  RESOURCES 

$2,500,000,  and  of  the  canal  system  nearly  an  equal  amount. 
In  1918  when  only  about  85,000  acres  were  irrigated,  the  annual 
crop  value  reached  $3,000,000.  With  the  increase  in  area  and 
with  the  more  thorough  farming  methods,  the  returns  are 
increasing  rapidly. 

When  the  United  States  entered  this  field  a  large  number  of 
small  canals  had  been  built  taking  water  from  the  river,  some 
in  Wyoming  but  most  of  them  in  Nebraska,  so  that  in  August, 
in  years  of  low  run-off,  the  stream  was  nearly  dry  at  the  state 
line,  and  in  normal  years  most  of  the  canals  in  Nebraska  were 
short  of  water  in  the  late  summer.  The  government  investiga- 
tions began  with  a  search  for  reservoir  sites,  resulting  in  the 
discovery  of  several  possible  locations.  The  one  finally  selected 
is  that  about  fifty  miles  west  of  Casper,  Wyo.,  where  the  reser- 
voir, formed  by  the  building  of  the  Pathfinder  Dam,  has  a  capac- 
ity of  1,070,000  acre-feet,  a  magnitude  sufficient  to  provide 
storage  for  irrigation  purposes  of  all  the  unappropriated  sup- 
ply of  normal  years,  and  to  hold  a  large  reserve  from  the  years 
of  heavy  run-off  for  use  in  years  of  drought. 

The  entire  supply  received  by  the  Interstate  Canal  is  used 
during  the  summer  for  the  direct  irrigation  of  the  lands  under 
it.  In  the  spring  and  autumn,  when  less  water  is  used,  the  sur- 
plus capacity  is  employed  to  convey  water  to  two  reservoirs 
that  have  been  constructed  in  the  valley,  beginning  about  100 
miles  below  the  headworks  of  the  canal,  Lake  Alice,  with  capac- 
ity of  11,400  acre- feet  and  Lake  Minatare,  with  a  capacity  of 
about  67,000  acre-feet.  These  reservoirs  enable  the  main  canal 
to  bring  water  to  a  much  larger  area  than  it  could  otherwise 
supply,  and  also  furnish  insurance  against  drought  to  the  lands 
under  them.  Without  them  the  cultivated  lands  might  be  left 
waterless  in  the  event  of  a  break  in  the  main  canal,  the  liability 
to  which  increases  with  its  length. 

SHOSHONE.  In  contrast  to  the  massive  dimensions  of  the 
Roosevelt  and  Pathfinder  dams,  but  similar  in  having  a  curved 
plan,  is  the  extremely  high  and  relatively  thin  concrete  dam  on 
Shoshone  River  in  Wyoming,  east  of  Yellowstone  National  Park, 
shown  from  the  upstream  side  in  PI.  IX.  C.  This,  when  built, 
was  reputed  to  be  the  highest  in  the  world,  the  crest  being  over 


NOTABLE  WORKS  159 

328  feet  above  bedrock,  and  only  200  feet  long,  the  dam  con- 
taining 78,576  cubic  yards  of  material.  The  canyon  at  this 
point  is  very  narrow,  as  shown  in  PL  IX.  C.  Above  the  canyon 
the  valley  spreads  out,  permitting  the  formation  of  a  lake  which 
when  full  has  a  surface  area  of  6,600  acres  and  a  capacity  of 
456,600  acre-feet. 

At  a  point  about  16  miles  below  the  storage  dam,  the  water 
is  diverted  by  a  low  overflow  dam  into  what  is  known  as  Corbett 
Tunnel,  17,355  feet  in  length,  which  delivers  it  to  the  main  canal, 
which  has  a  capacity  of  approximately  1,000  second- feet  and 
a  length  of  18  miles.  This  in  turn  distributes  water  to  over 
380  miles  of  smaller  distributaries,  providing  water  for  upwards 
of  150,000  acres,  of  which,  however,  only  a  portion  is  at  present 
under  cultivation — the  canal  system  being  constructed  well 
ahead  of  farm  developments.  On  these  lands,  hay  and  grain 
are  produced  and  small  tracts  are  devoted  to  vegetables. 
Alfalfa  is  the  principal  crop  here  as  elsewhere  on  the  irrigation 
projects,  exceeding  all  others  both  in  area  planted  and  in  value. 

The  reservoir  created  by  the  Shoshone  Dam  is  in  the  line  of 
direct  travel  from  the  town  of  Cody,  Wyo.,  to  the  Yellow- 
stone National  Park,  and  hence  it  has  been  necessary  to  build 
roads  around  the  margin  of  the  water  to  replace  those  sub- 
merged. The  country  in  which  these  are  located  is  quite  rough 
and  in  places  the  roadway  passes  through  tunnels,  as  shown  in 
PL  IX.  D.  As  finally  built,  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
reservoir,  the  road  forms  one  of  the  most  attractive  approaches 
to  the  park. 

ARROWROCK.  The  highest  storage  dam  in  the  world,  that  on 
the  Boise  River  in  Idaho,  is  a  concrete  structure,  curved  in 
form  and  with  relatively  thin  section.  It  rises  350  feet  above 
the  lowest  point  of  base  and  measures  1,100  feet  along  the  crest. 
The  storage  provided  is  small  compared  to  that  of  other  large 
dams  because  of  the  fact  that  the  valley  does  not  widen  out 
above  the  dam  site  but  continues  as  a  narrow  gorge.  The  local- 
ity chosen  was,  however,  the  best  point  available  for  holding  the 
floods  of  the  stream  and  the  value  of  water  is  such  as  to  justify 
the  larger  expenditure  per  acre-foot  stored  than  in  the  case  of 
some  of  the  other  dams.  The  cost  per  acre-foot  capacity  is 


160  WATER  RESOURCES 

approximately   $25,   as   compared  with  less   than   $3   for   the 
Roosevelt  Dam  and  less  than  $2  for  the  Pathfinder. 

The  accompanying  view,  PL  X.  A,  was  taken  when  the  dam 
was  approaching  completion  and  shows  in  the  background  a 
portion  of  the  reservoir,  also  near  the  center  of  the  dam  the 
water  issuing  from  the  highest  row  of  outlets.  On  the  extreme 
left  is  the  spillway,  formed  by  making  a  narrow  cut  in  the  hill- 
side. The  water  stored  here  is  allowed  to  flow  down  the  river 
as  needed  and  at  a  point  about  twelve  miles  below  is  taken  out 
by  a  lower  dam  into  the  head  of  a  large  canal.  This  serves  not 
only  certain  of  the  agricultural  lands  but  also  carries  a  large 
part  of  the  flood  water  to  a  depression  out  on  the  plain  known 
as  Deer  Flat  Reservoir,  where  it  can  be  held  to  meet  later  needs. 
By  utilizing  the  Arrowrock  Reservoir  in  the  narrow  river 
valley  to  regulate  the  floods  as  well  as  to  store  a  part  of  the 
water,  it  is  possible  to  so  control  the  stream  as  to  make  more 
largely  available  the  Deer  Flat  Reservoir  and  to  conserve  the 
greater  part  of  the  floods  which  otherwise  run  to  waste. 

Among  the  many  notable  features  of  this  dam  may  be  men- 
tioned the  method  of  discharging  the  stored  water.  Instead  of 
having  one  or  two  large  outlets  built  in  tunnels  through  the 
rocky  walls,  the  plan  has  been  adopted  of  providing  a  series  of 
outlets  directly  through  the  dam  and  at  various  heights.  The 
problem  has  been  to  discharge  the  water  at  necessary  times  in 
such  a  way  as  to  overcome  the  destructive  energy  of  the  water 
as  it  issues. 

Flood  flows  of  such  magnitude  that  they  cannot  be  controlled 
by  various  valves  in  the  dam  are  taken  care  of  by  the  spillway 
located  at  the  extreme  left,  PL  X.  A.  This  is  regulated  by  a 
rolling  device  which  allows  the  flood  to  pass  over  the  spillway 
or  which  can  be  raised  to  maintain  the  desired  water  level.  The 
operation  is  automatic,  the  rolls  falling  and  permitting  a  larger 
and  larger  volume  to  escape  as  the  flood  rises  or  as  the  flow 
declines  the  discharge  is  automatically  checked.  By  the  device 
installed,  floods  of  40,000  second-feet  can  be  handled  and  the 
flow  regulated  from  1  second- foot  to  10  second- feet  (Engineer- 
ing Record,  September  30,  1916,  p.  409). 

ELEPHANT  BUTTE.    This  structure  is  of  interstate  and  inter- 


Plate  X.  A. 

Arrowrock  Darn,  Boise  Project,  Idaho,  water  issuing  from  five  openings 

in  the  upper  row. 


Plate  X.  B. 
Elephant  Butte  Dam,  New  Mexico,  under  construction. 


Plate  X.  C. 
Earth  dam  on  Carson  River,  Nevada. 


Plate  X.  D. 
Washington,     one    of    three 


Lake     Keechelus,     Washington,     one 
into  reservoirs  at  head  of  Yakima   River, 
above  site  of  permanent  earth  dam. 


large     lakes     converted 
Temporary   wooded  crib  dam 


NOTABLE  WORKS  161 

national  interest  in  that  it  stores  the  water  of  the  Rio  Grande, 
which  rises  in  Colorado,  flows  in  a  southerly  direction  through 
New  Mexico,  forms  a  portion  of  the  boundary  between  NeW 
Mexico  and  Texas  and  finally  forms  the  international  boundary 
for  several  hundred  miles  between  the  states  of  Texas  and  Chi- 
huahua, Coahuila,  and  Tamaulipas,  in  the  Republic  of  Mexico. 
The  water  stored  in  the  reservoir  is  to  irrigate  land  in  New 
Mexico  and  Texas,  60,000  acre-feet  being  set  apart  to  be  dis- 
tributed to  Mexico  in  recognition  of  prior  rights  and  of  inter- 
national comity.  The  dam,  unlike  the  Roosevelt,  Arrowrock, 
and  other  large  storage  works  built  by  the  Reclamation  Service, 
is  perfectly  straight  in  plan,  the  width  of  the  valley  being  too 
great  to  utilize  economically  the  curved  form.  In  vertical  sec- 
tion it  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  Roosevelt  Dam,  the  extreme 
height  is  300  feet,  as  contrasted  with  280  feet  on  the  latter,  and 
the  cubical  contents  are  nearly  double. 

The  reservoir  created  by  the  dam  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
world,  being  nearly  40  miles  in  length  and  contains  over  2,600,- 
000  acre-feet.  The  necessity  for  this  large  storage  capacity 
arises  because  of  the  large  fluctuations  of  the  river  from  year 
to  year,  the  maximum  annual  flow  being  about  2,422,000  acre- 
feet  and  the  minimum  200,700.  It  is  necessary  to  provide  stor- 
age to  hold  the  high  floods  so  that  some  of  the  water  may  be 
carried  over  the  years  of  drought.  Another  necessity  for  hav- 
ing great  reservoir  capacity  lies  in  the  fact  that  a  large  amount 
of  silt  is  brought  down  by  the  river  and  left  in  the  still  waters 
of  the  artificial  lake.  The  size  of  the  reservoir  will  enable  this 
silt  to  accumulate  for  many  years  without  material  injury. 

The  stored  water  is  discharged  through  numerous  sluices,  as 
shown  in  PI.  X.  B,  which  gives  a  view  of  the  dam  as  it  was 
approaching  completion.  In  the  background  is  to  be  seen  the 
mass  of  black  basalt  known  as  Elephant  Butte,  rising  through 
the  sedimentary  rocks  and  forming  a  striking  landmark. 

LAKE  TAHOE.  In  marked  contrast  to  the  costly  works  just 
described  is  the  low,  easily  built  dam  which  regulates  the  out- 
flow from  this  natural  lake,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  economi- 
cally operated  of  the  natural  reservoirs  in  the  arid  west.  The 
lake,  partly  in  California  and  partly  in  Nevada,  is  remarkable 


162  WATER  RESOURCES 

for  its  high  altitude,  over  6,000  feet,  and  for  the  peculiar  beauty 
of  the  surrounding  mountains  and  forests,  making  it  very 
attractive  for  summer  residence.  The  use  of  the  lake  for  stor- 
age has  been  governed  to  a  large  degree  by  aesthetic  considera- 
tions as  it  was  not  desired  to  raise  the  level  beyond  a  certain 
fixed  point  to  avoid  flooding  the  lands  along  the  shore  valuable 
for  residence,  nor  was  it  practicable  to  lower  the  water  more 
than  a  few  feet  because  of  possible  interference  with  navigation 
by  the  small  craft  which  form  the  principal  means  of  convey- 
ance to  and  from  the  hotels  and  houses  lining  the  shores.  It 
has  been  possible  within  these  narrow  limits  to  work  out  a 
scheme  of  control  such  as  to  hold  the  greater  part  of  the  spring 
freshets  which  reach  the  lake  and  not  permit  any  considerable 
amount  of  water  to  flow  to  waste. 

A  view  of  the  lake  is  given  in  PI.  I.  A,  illustrating  the  general 
topography.  The  outlet  is  a  relatively  small  river,  the  Truckee, 
which,  flowing  north  and  continuing  for  a  time  in  California, 
turns  easterly  and  with  rapid  descent  enters  the  eastern  edge 
of  Nevada,  where  it  soon  disappears  in  Pyramid  or  Winnemucca 
lakes,  these  being  shrunken  remnants  of  the  ancient  fresh  water 
body  known  as  Lake  Lahontan.  To  regulate  the  outflow  of 
Tahoe  into  Truckee  River,  it  has  been  necessary  merely  to  build 
a  low  dam,  originally  of  logs,  similar  to  that  shown  on  PL  X.  D, 
but  less  elaborate.  This  early  structure  has  been  replaced  by 
one  of  concrete,  founded  mainly  on  the  river  gravel,  and  pro- 
vided with  gates  of  sufficient  width  to  permit  drawing  down  the 
lake  during  the  few  days  of  extreme  demand  for  water  in  the 
lower  valleys  in  Nevada. 

In  its  course  in  California,  several  water  power  plants,  mainly 
for  electric  transmission,  have  been  built,  and  farther  down  in 
Nevada  a  number  of  private  irrigation  canals  take  most  of  the 
water  from  the  river.  Still  lower  and  a  few  miles  above  the 
lakes  or  sinks  into  which  the  river  disappeared  when  in  a  state 
of  nature,  a  large  canal,  PL  XII.  C,  built  by  the  United  States 
Reclamation  Service,  takes  the  remaining  water  to  the  adjacent 
desert  lands  and  in  flood  time  to  a  reservoir  on  Carson  River. 
The  problems  of  water  conservation  and  of  distribution  are  thus 
quite  complicated.  Storage  in  Lake  Tahoe  of  the  excess  waters 


NOTABLE  WORKS  163 

of  spring  is  relatively  simple,  except  as  modified  by  the  require- 
ments of  the  summer  residents.  In  letting  out  this  water,  how- 
ever, provision  must  be  made  for  the  rights  asserted  by  the 
officials  of  the  two  states  concerned  and  by  the  owners  of  the 
power  plants  and  of  the  older  irrigation  works  whose  claims  to 
the  water  are  somewhat  indefinite.  The  lower  storage  on  Car- 
son River  aids  in  economically  handling  available  water,  but 
the  floods  and  the  return  water  from  the  old  canals  add  various 
complications. 

LAHONTAN.  The  low-lying  reservoir  on  Carson  River  formed 
by  this  dam  presents  many  interesting  features  in  connection 
with  the  solving  of  problems  of  saving  waste  water  on  the 
lower  reaches  of  torrential  streams.  The  ideal  condition  in 
storage  is  to  hold  the  water  at  as  high  a  point  as  practicable 
in  the  mountains,  as  is  done  in  the  case  of  Lake  Tahoe,  situated 
at  the  head  of  Truckee  River.  On  the  Carson  River,  which 
rises  in  the  high  valleys  immediately  south  of  the  Truckee,  are 
numerous  reservoir  sites.  The  first  question  which  naturally 
occurs  to  the  student  is  as  to  why  storage  works  have  not  been 
built  there  instead  of  at  the  place  selected.  This  might  have 
been  done  had  it  not  been  for  certain  artificial  limitations  set 
by  the  manner  in  which  the  country  has  developed  and  the 
adverse  rights  which  have  attached  to  the  use  of  water. 

The  streams  which  go  to  make  up  the  Carson  River  rise  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  in  an  area  included 
within  the  boundaries  of  the  state  of  California.  The  reservoir 
sites,  therefore,  which  are  needed  for  impounding  the  water  for 
use  in  Nevada  are  in  the  adjacent  state.  The  condition  is  simi- 
lar to  that  which  exists  at  Lake  Tahoe,  except  that  the  line 
between  the  two  states  has  been  drawn  through  Lake  Tahoe, 
dividing  its  water  surface  between  the  two  states.  The  questions 
of  the  rights  to  the  use  of  the  water  of  the  tributaries  of  the 
Carson  River  have  not  been  settled  as  between  the  two  states 
and  the  various  claimants  residing  therein.  It  is  probable  that 
many  years  of  expensive  litigation  must  ensue  before  these  rights 
are  fully  determined.  In  the  meantime  it  has  seemed  unwise  to 
wait  for  decisions  on  these  points  inasmuch  as  apparently,  in 


164  WATER  RESOURCES 

whatever  manner  the  questions  are  decided,  there  will  be  a  con- 
siderable volume  of  flood  water  coming  down  the  main  stream 
each  year. 

The  Lahontan  Reservoir  has  been  built  to  conserve  the  water 
which  escapes  from  the  irrigated  lands  in  the  valley  of  the 
Carson  River  and  particularly  the  erratic  floods  which  may 
occur  at  any  time,  but  particularly  in  the  spring.  Its  position 
far  down  the  main  stream  near  the  edge  of  the  desert  enables 
this  to  be  done,  and  also  permits  it  to  be  used  in  connection  with 
the  excess  water  of  Truckee  River,  as  noted  above.  Hence  it 
serves  the  purpose  of  taking  care  of  much  of  the  water  of  both 
rivers  which  otherwise  would  have  been  lost  in  the  lakes  or  sinks 
into  which  during  past  ages  they  have  disappeared. 

The  dam  shown  on  PL  X.  C  is  notable  for  the  large  size  and 
massive  character  of  the  spillways  built  at  each  end  of  the 
earthen  structure.  These  were  necessitated  by  the  fact  that 
the  underlying  rocks  are  quite  soft  and  easily  eroded.  They 
are  of  such  doubtful  character  that.it  was  not  deemed  wise  to 
attempt  to  build  a  high  masonry  dam  upon  the  site  nor  was 
there  sufficient  hard  material  near  by  to  justify  making  a  con- 
crete structure.  In  fact,  in  order  to  secure  suitable  earth  it 
was  necessary  to  make  careful  selection  from  among  the  mate- 
rials in  the  vicinity.  The  dam  itself  has  been  made  of  ample 
dimensions  so  as  to  distribute  the  weight  and  to  completely 
cover  the  foundation. 

The  Lahontan  Dam  being  of  earth  placed  in  the  path  of  the 
floods  and  in  a  locality  where  the  native  rock  is  easily  worn 
away,  it  has  been  necessary  to  take  somewhat  extraordinary 
precautions  against  overflow  of  the  main  structure  and  to  break 
up  or  neutralize  the  destructive  forces  of  the  waters  which  may 
escape  over  the  spillway.  This  has  been  done  by  so  arranging 
that  the  water  which  escapes  around  the  ends  of  the  dam  shall 
fall,  not  in  one  continuous  body,  but  shall  be  dropped  from  step 
to  step  until  finally  it  arrives  at  the  level  of  the  river.  Here, 
instead  of  being  turned  directly  downstream,  it  is  given  a 
course  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  dam.  The  water,  brought  in 
a  curved  path  down  this  series  of  steps  forming  one  spillway, 
and  finally  reaching  the  lowest  point,  encounters  directly  in  its 


NOTABLE  WORKS  165 

path  an  equal  and  similar  volume  which  has  come  down  the  other 
spillway.  Thus  we  have  two  equal  and  opposing  volumes  of 
water  expending  their  destructive  energies  on  each  other  instead 
of  upon  the  easily  eroded  native  rock.  This  action  takes  place 
in  a  massive  cement-lined  basin  and  the  tumultuous  water,  over- 
flowing on  the  lower  side,  passes  down  the  river  with  its  destruc- 
tive energy  greatly  reduced. 

This  whole  system,  beginning  with  Lake  Tahoe  and  ending 
with  the  distribution  below  Carson  Dam,  is  illustrative  of  vari- 
ous methods  of  overcoming  difficulties  which  at  first  seemed 
almost  insurmountable,  these  arising  not  merely  from  physical 
conditions  but  from  legal  or  artificial  restrictions  set  by  state 
lines  and  by  imperfect  or  indefinite  water  laws. 

STRAWBERRY  VALLEY.  An  earthen  dam  affording  interesting 
contrasts  with  the  one  just  described  is  that  built  at  the  outlet 
of  Strawberry  Valley  near  the  crest  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains 
of  Utah.  Strawberry  Creek  is  a  tributary  of  the  Duchesne 
River,  whose  waters  flow  into  the  Green  River  and  through  this 
into  Colorado  River.  On  the  west  side  of  the  range  are  small 
streams  which  flow  into  the  interior  valleys  of  Utah,  their  water 
being  used  in  part  for  irrigation,  the  remainder  being  lost  by 
evaporation,  mainly  in  Great  Salt  Lake.  In  order  to  supple- 
ment the  flow  of  these  streams  and  to  increase  the  area  of  land 
irrigated  in  LTtah  Valley,  a  tunnel  about  three  miles  long  was 
built  to  carry  water  from  Strawberry  Valley  westerly.  An 
adequate  supply  has  been  secured  by  building  a  dam  to  hold 
back  the  flood  flow  of  Strawberry  Creek,  thus  creating  a  lake 
with  an  area  of  8,200  acres  and  a  capacity  of  250,000  acre-feet. 

The  dam  is  an  earth  fill  with  reinforced  concrete  core  72  feet 
high,  with  a  crest  length  of  488  feet.  Being  near  the  head  of  a 
relatively  small  stream  it  has  not  been  necessary  to  provide 
spillways  as  elaborate  as  those  of  the  Lahontan  Dam  and  the 
adjacent  rock  is  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  the  erosion 
which  takes  place  during  the  brief  floods.  A  view  of  the  dam 
when  under  construction  is  given  in  PL  VI.  D.  In  this  view 
the  top  of  the  core  wall  can  be  seen  projecting  above  the  two 
unfinished  banks  of  earth  between  which  is  an  area  to  be  filled 
in,  completely  covering  the  concrete  wall.  On  the  hill  above  the 


166  WATER  RESOURCES 

dam  and  marking  the  upper  limit  of  high  water  in  the  reservoir 
are  shown  the  shops  and  mixing  plant. 

YAKIMA  LAKES.  Somewhat  similar  to  Lake  Tahoe  are  the 
Yakima  Lakes  in  the  state  of  Washington.  These  are  a  group 
of  three  large  and  several  small  lakes  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Cascade  Range  at  the  head  of  Yakima  River.  The  regulation 
of  these  was  undertaken  before  the  land  around  their  borders 
was  largely  utilized  for  summer  residents ;  hence  it  was  possible 
to  provide  a  greater  range  of  height  of  water  than  in  the  case 
of  Lake  Tahoe,  drawing  it  down  below  the  natural  level  and 
allowing  it  to  fill  up  to  a  point  above  the  former  height.  These 
lakes  are  known  as  Keechelus,  Kachess  and  Clealum.  The  Rec- 
lamation Service  has  built  dams  of  earth  across  the  valley  at 
the  lower  end  of  each  of  these  lakes.  These  earthen  dams,  as 
a  rule,  have  been  built  with  core  walls  of  puddled  material.  The 
outlets  of  the  lakes  have  been  lowered  by  means  of  tunnels  or 
deep  excavations  across  the  line  of  the  dam.  A  view  of  the  tem- 
porary or  preliminary  timber  dam  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Keeche- 
lus is  shown  in  PI.  X.  D.  The  final  or  permanent  earth  dam 
has  been  built  immediately  below  this  point  and  raises  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  about  40  feet. 

The  water  stored  in  these  upper  reservoirs  is  utilized  in  sup- 
plying lands  along  the  Yakima  River,  it  being  the  intention  to 
hold  practically  all  of  the  flood  flow  and  bring  about  develop- 
ment of  the  arid  lands  to  the  limit  of  the  supply  thus  made  avail- 
able. The  principal  canal  system  depending  upon  these  reser- 
voirs is  that  known  as  Sunny  side,  the  head  of  which  is  shown 
in  PI.  XL  A.  There  are  about  80,000  acres  under  this  canal; 
the  land  being  at  a  low  altitude  and  with  warm  climate  produces 
very  valuable  crops — the  gross  return  in  1918  being  about 
$7,000,000. 

DEER  FLAT  RESERVOIR.  In  contrast  with  the  mountain  stor- 
age in  Roosevelt,  Tahoe,  the  Yakima  Lakes  and  other  reservoirs 
near  the  headwaters  are  the  conservation  works  built  in  the  low, 
open  valleys  such  as  the  Lahontan.  Here,  in  such  valleys,  the 
conditions  for  storage  are  rarely  favorable  because  of  the  long 
length  of  dams  necessary  to  inclose  the  depression  and  the 
broad  expanse  of  relatively  shallow  water  exposed  to  evapora- 


NOTABLE  WORKS  167 

tion.  In  the  case  of  the  Deer  Flat  Reservoir  in  southern  Idaho, 
the  land  utilized  for  water  storage  was  originally  devoted 
largely  to  agriculture.  The  broad  valley  or  depression  selected 
between  the  low,  rolling  hills,  to  the  eye  at  least,  does  not  offer 
any  particular  advantage  as  a  reservoir  site.  However,  care- 
ful survey  disclosed  the  fact  that  a  reservoir  could  be  made  by 
building  several  low,  earthen  dams,  as  illustrated  in  PI.  XI.  B. 

One  of  these  earth  dams,  70  feet  high,  is  4,000  feet  long,  the 
other,  40  feet  high,  is  7,200  feet  long,  each  containing  over  a 
million  cubic  yards  of  earth.  They  are  faced  on  the  water  side 
with  heavy  gravel  obtained  in  the  vicinity,  no  large  rock  being 
available.  A  somewhat  noteworthy  experiment  is  being  made 
in  that  the  embankments  were  widened  at  the  top  to  a  total  of 
from  60  to  70  feet,  by  dumping  gravel  from  cars  on  the  3  to  1 
water  slope.  This  was  allowed  to  lie  at  its  natural  angle  of 
repose.  As  the  water  surface  rises  and  falls,  the  wave  action 
works  this  gravel  gradually  down  the  slope.  The  cutting  has, 
however,  been  much  slower  than  expected,  the  top  width  after 
several  years  being  but  slightly  reduced. 

BELLE  FOURCHE.  Similar  in  some  respects  to  the  Deer  Flat 
Reservoir  is  that  of  the  Belle  Fourche  Project  created  in  the 
broad  valley  of  Owl  Creek,  South  Dakota,  by  building  an  earth 
dam  6,200  feet  long  and  containing  1,600,000  cubic  yards.  In 
its  relatively  thin  cross  section  and  great  height  this  is  one  of 
the  notable  earthworks,  the  crest  being  115  feet  above  its  base 
and  the  side  slopes  two  feet  horizontal  to  one  foot  vertical.  To 
defend  the  dam  from  wave  action  it  was  deemed  desirable  to 
cover  the  water  side  of  the  embankment  with  large  concrete 
blocks,  as  shown  in  PL  XI.  C. 

In  building  this  dam  the  only  material  available  in  the  vicinity 
was  found  to  be  adobe  clay.  This  material  was  handled  with 
difficulty  unless  the  moisture  contents  were  just  right.  When 
wet  the  adobe  is  sticky  and  refractory  and  when  dry  it  bakes 
into  hard  masses  or  lumps  and  pulverizes  into  a  fine  powder 
which  forms  dense  clouds  of  dust.  Moreover,  it  contains  in 
some  places  a  considerable  amount  of  gypsum,  which  is  quite 
readily  soluble,  so  that  care  was  necessary  to  make  selection  of 


168  WATER  RESOURCES 

the  layers  which  were  nearly  free  from  this  objectionable 
material. 

The  water  collected  in  the  reservoirs  is  that  from  the  occa- 
sional storms  which  occur  in  the  drainage  basin  of  Owl  Creek, 
but  the  chief  source  of  supply  is  that  obtained  from  a  feed  canal 
from  Belle  Fourche  River.  Water  is  diverted  from  this  stream 
by  means  of  a  dam  located  about  two  miles  below  the  town  of 
Belle  Fourche,  S.  D.,  the  canal  leading  from  this  point 
being  6.5  miles  in  length  and  having  a  capacity  of  1,600  cubic 
feet  per  second.  There  is  relatively  little  danger  of  overflow  of 
the  dam  because  the  greater  part  of  the  water  which  comes  to 
the  reservoir  is  thus  under  control.  Nevertheless,  ample  provi- 
sion for  wasteways  has  been  made  but  on  a  scale  by  no  means 
comparable  to  those  for  the  Lahontan  Dam. 

UMATILLA.  A  somewhat  difficult  problem  in  water  conser- 
vation has  been  solved  in  the  case  of  the  Umatilla  River  in 
northern  Oregon.  This  stream,  flowing  in  a  general  northern 
direction  into  Columbia  River,  has  early  spring  floods  which 
quickly  run  to  waste.  At  the  time  they  occur  there  is  little 
need  of  the  water.  There  are  few,  if  any,  suitable  reservoir 
sites  along  the  course  of  the  stream,  but  careful  topographic 
surveys  revealed  the  presence  of  several  depressions  or  shallow 
valleys  in  the  relatively  flat  land  near  the  lower  end  of  the  river. 
None  of  these  localities  was  particularly  attractive  and  their 
topographic  advantages  were  lessened  by  the  fact  that  the 
country  is  composed  largely  of  eruptive  rocks  overlaid  with 
sands  and  gravels  so  that  there  were  considerable  doubts  as 
to  whether  the  depressions  if  filled  would  hold  water.  The  out- 
lets also  of  these  shallow  valleys  are  so  broad  as  to  require 
dams  of  considerable  length  to  close  them.  Selection  was  made 
of  one  of  these  sites  known  as  the  Cold  Springs  and  an  earth 
dam  constructed,  forming  a  basin  of  a  capacity  of  50,000  acre- 
feet.  The  maximum  height  of  the  earth  fill  is  98  feet  and  the 
length  of  the  crest  3,800  feet.  The  dam  contains  789,500  cubic 
yards  of  earth.  In  outline  it  is  curved  in  order  to  fit  the  con- 
tour of  the  ground.  A  general  view  of  the  upper  side  of  the  dam 
and  of  the  outlet  tower  is  given  in  PI.  XI.  D. 

The  reservoir  is  filled  by  flood  water  taken  from  Umatilla 


NOTABLE  WORKS  169 

River  and  conveyed  for  25  miles  through  a  canal  with  capacity 
of  350  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  water  of  the  floods  in  excess 
of  this  quantity  is  necessarily  wasted,  but  by  utilizing  the  canal 
to  its  full  capacity,  there  is  usually  obtained  ample  water  to 
fill  the  reservoir  during  the  flood  season. 

One  of  the  matters  which  has  given  considerable  concern  has 
been  the  leakage  under  or  around  the  embankment.  A  study 
of  the  character  of  the  water  issuing  indicates  that  it  does  not 
come  through  the  dam  but  probably  percolates  in  a  round- 
about way  through  the  natural  formation.  The  fact  that  it 
issues  clear  and  is  decreasing  in  amount  is  an  assurance  of 
safety.  The  experience  gained  in  this  and  similar  earth  struc- 
tures leads  to  the  belief  that  other  works  of  this  character  can 
be  built  to  advantage. 

The  feed  canal  is  shown  in  PL  XII.  A.  At  this  place  it  is 
lined  with  cement  in  order  to  prevent  loss  of  water  through  the 
rock,  which  as  shown  in  the  picture  is  shattered  and  pervious. 
Here  also  there  is  particular  need  of  care  not  only  for  economy 
of  water  but  to  prevent  softening  the  earth  of  the  roadbed  of 
the  railroad  which  lies  parallel  to  and  immediately  below  the 
level  of  the  canal. 

The  flood  waters  delivered  into  the  reservoir  are  drawn  out 
during  the  summer  season  for  irrigating  about  25,000  acres  of 
land.  Much  of  this  agricultural  soil  is  very  sandy  so  that  dur- 
ing the  first  few  years  the  amount  of  water  applied  has  been 
excessive.  A  quantity  to  a  depth  of  15  or  even  20  feet  has  been 
put  upon  some  of  the  small  farms  with  resulting  heavy  seep- 
age and  necessity  for  building  large  drains.  With  greater  skill 
in  applying  water,  the  average  duty  has  dropped  to  6  acre- 
feet,  with  prospects  of  still  further  reduction  toward  the  average 
of  other  projects,  namely,  between  2  and  3  acre- feet. 

MINIDOKA.  This  combined  storage  and  diversion  dam  is 
notable  as  one  of  the  large  structures  built  of  loose  rock  across 
the  river  without  diverting  the  main  stream.  Provision  was 
made  for  suitable  river  gates  at  the  north  side  and  then  the 
main  channel  was  obstructed  by  large  rocks  dumped  in  place 
and  rearranged  by  the  rapidly  rushing  water.  Smaller  and 
smaller  stones  were  dropped  on  these  until  the  interstices  be- 


170  WATER  RESOURCES 

tween  the  larger  blocks  were  filled  and  the  river  raised  to  a  point 
where  it  could  be  diverted  through  the  gates  already  provided. 
In  the  comparatively  still  water  above  the  obstructions,  gravel 
and  finer  materials  were  dropped,  making  the  loose  rock  struc- 
ture fairly  water-tight.  The  dam  thus  built  raised  the  water 
level  about  40  feet  and  forced  the  stream  into  the  gravity  canals, 
one  on  the  north  and  the  other  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  at 
the  same  time  making  a  reservoir,  named  Lake  Walcott,  in 
recognition  of  the  work  of  Hon.  Chas.  D.  Walcott,  now  secre- 
tary of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  in  the  reclamation  of  the 
arid  west. 

A  considerable  amount  of  water  belonging  to  lower  appro- 
priators  must  be  permitted  to  flow  through  the  dam.  As  an 
easily  available  head  of  water  was  thus  created  by  the  dam,  it 
was  considered  wise  to  utilize  this  and  thus  conserve  and  put 
to  use  as  far  as  possible  the  power  resulting.  In  PL  XVIII.  D 
are  shown  the  gates  installed  on  the  south  side  of  the  river 
channel  which,  now  closed,  hold  back  the  flow  and  force  the  water 
to  pass  through  the  circular  openings  above  the  gates.  These 
openings  lead  to  the  penstocks  of  the  power  plant  which  has 
been  erected  below  the  dam.  The  five  large  river  gates  8  feet 
wide  by  12  feet  high  are  kept  permanently  closed,  furnishing  a 
head  of  48  feet  used  to  drive  a  7,000  kilowatt  power  plant.  The 
cost  of  power  produced  under  these  conditions  averages  slightly 
over  one  mill  per  kilowatt,  including  all  operating  expenses  and 
plant  depreciation.  This  low  cost  makes  it  possible  to  sell  the 
energy  for  many  varied  and  novel  uses  in  the  small  towns  in  the 
agricultural  communities  which  have  grown  up  as  a  conse- 
quence or  the  building  of  the  irrigation  works.  A  considerable 
proportion  is  used  for  heating.  For  example,  in  the  new  high 
school  at  Rupert,  Ida.,  electricity  is  used  for  heating,  light- 
ing and  operating  all  the  devices  necessary  in  a  modern  high 
school  that  includes  physical  and  chemical  laboratories.  It  is 
this  utilization  of  what  may  be  termed  the  by-products  of  water 
conservation  which  best  illustrates  the  far-reaching  importance 
of  the  subject. 

To  more  completely  utilize  the  dam,  an  extended  overflow 
weir  has  been  built  as  shown  in  PI.  XII.  B,  affording  a  broad 


NOTABLE  WORKS  171 

spillway  for  the  floods  which  enter  Lake  Walcott.  It  follows 
a  somewhat  irregular  line  of  lava  or  basalt.  The  weir  consists 
of  a  low  concrete  wall,  on  which  have  been  built  concrete  piers  so 
arranged  that  by  use  of  flashboards  or  stop  plank  the  water 
level  can  be  raised,  creating  the  storage  in  Lake  Walcott  of 
150,000  acre-feet,  of  which,  however,  only  about  one-third  is 
available  above  the  fixed  crest.  In  the  distance  is  shown  the 
power  house  above  described,  this  being  located  near  the  deep 
part  of  the  channel  immediately  below  the  river  gates  shown  in 
PL  XVIII.  D. 

BEAR  LAKE.  An  interesting  example  of  water  conservation 
by  storage  in  which  the  reservoir  is  created  not  by  raising  the 
height  of  the  water,  but  by  lowering  it,  is  the  case  of  the  Bear 
Lake  in  northeastern  Utah.  Bear  River,  flowing  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Utah  in  a  northerly  direction  through  a  corner  of 
Wyoming,  passes  by  the  northern  end  of  the  lake  and  in  high 
water  overflows  into  the  broad  depression  occupied  by  the  lake, 
the  stream  receiving  back  some  of  the  water  later  in  the  summer. 
In  its  lower  course  the  river  is  used  for  developing  hydro- 
electric power,  as  wrell  as  for  irrigation.  For  many  years 
studies  have  been  made  of  the  situation  in  the  attempt  to 
improve  the  storage  capacity.  Plans  have  finally  been  adopted 
by  a  water  power  company  for  drawing  down  the  lake,  not  by 
dredging  out  the  outlet  through  the  long,  flat  country  which 
rises  to  the  north,  but  by  lifting  the  water  a  few  feet  out  of  the 
lake  basin  and  sending  it  down  Bear  River  in  large  quantities 
at  the  time  of  year  when  needed.  Power  for  pumping  is  pro- 
duced by  the  use  of  the  same  water  at  points  farther  down  the 
stream,  the  fall  in  the  river  used  in  developing  the  power  being 
a  hundred-fold  that  of  the  lift  required  to  take  the  water  out 
of  the  lake. 

ST.  MARY-MILK  RIVER  SYSTEMS.  The  storage  of  St.  Mary 
River  water  in  Montana  and  its  transportation  across  the  divide 
into  Milk  River  is  an  interesting  solution  of  a  somewhat  diffi- 
cult international  problem  of  conservation.  The  St.  Mary  re- 
ceives water  from  the  high  mountains  of  northern  Montana, 
which  have  recently  been  included  in  the  Glacial  National  Park. 
In  broadly  viewing  the  topography  of  the  country  it  would 


172  WATER  RESOURCES 

appear  that  the  torrents  issuing  from  the  eastern  slope  of  these 
mountains  should  continue  in  an  easterly  direction  and  be  avail- 
able for  use  in  watering  the  dry  lands  lying  beyond  the  foot- 
hills. These  streams,  however,  instead  of  continuing  in  this 
general  direction  are  caught  by  St.  Mary  River,  which  turns 
abruptly  northward  and  flows  along  the  front  of  the  range. 
The  reason  for  this  peculiar  behavior  lies  in  the  fact  that  glacial 
material  brought  from  Canada  forms  a  low  ridge  sufficient  to 
obstruct  the  normal  easterly  flow  of  the  streams  and  to  turn 
them  from  the  Missouri  River  drainage  into  the  streams  which 
flow  into  Hudson  Bay.  The  rain  which  falls  on  this  low  inter- 
cepting ridge  finds  its  way  eastward  by  several  streams,  the 
principal  one  known  as  Milk  River.  Not  heading  in  the  moun- 
tains, these  are  of  small  size,  being  dependent  upon  the  some- 
what scanty  and  erratic  rainfall.  They  do  not  have  the  con- 
tinuity of  flow  which  marks  the  rivers  issuing  from  the  snow- 
banks around  the  higher  summits. 

The  boundary  line  between  Canada  and  the  United  States 
has  been  drawn  in  such  a  way  as  to  put  most  of  the  head- 
water and  sources  of  water  supply  for  St.  Mary  River  and 
for  Milk  River  in  the  United  States,  each  flowing  into 
Canada.  Milk  River,  however,  turns  toward  the  east,  fol- 
lows along  nearly  parallel  to  the  international  boundary 
on  the  Canadian  side,  then  crosses  back  into  Montana  and 
finally  enters  the  Missouri  River  in  that  state.  Along  its  lower 
course  are  extensive  areas  of  dry  land  which  need  irrigation 
but  for  which  an  adequate  supply  cannot  be  obtained  from 
Milk  River. 

Seeing  the  large  flow  of  water  which  is  steadily  pouring  north- 
ward into  the  Hudson  Bay  drainage,  the  idea  immediately 
occurs  to  an  observer  that  this  water  originating  in  the  moun- 
tains of  the  United  States  should  be  held  there  and  utilized  if 
possible  for  the  development  of  the  low-lying  dry  land  in  the 
Milk  River  Valley  of  Montana.  There  are  ample  reservoir 
facilities  in  the  natural  lakes  and  broad  valleys,  but  the  ques- 
tion at  once  arises  as  to  whether  the  water  thus  stored  can  be 
conducted  across  the  low  dividing  ridge.  Surveys  of  this  have 
shown  that  although  the  conditions  are  more  favorable  for 


NOTABLE  WORKS  173 

diversion  at  points  in  Canada  north  of  the  boundary,  yet  it  is 
possible  to  take  the  water  across  the  divide  within  the  boundary 
of  the  United  States  and  to  drop  it  into  the  headwater  of  Milk 
River.  Next,  however,  the  promoter  of  such  an  enterprise  is 
confronted  by  the  fact  that  the  waters  continuing  on  their  way 
to  the  lower  Milk  River  Valley  in  Montana  must  flow  into  Can- 
ada. Traversing  a  part  of  the  country  they  return  naturally 
to  the  United  States.  It  was  found  to  be  practicable  for  the 
Canadians  to  divert  this  water  while  it  was  on  its  way  down 
the  channel  of  Milk  River  and  to  take  it  out  on  to  the  lands  lying 
north  of  the  valley  so  that  even  if  water  was  stored  in  the 
United  States,  taken  across  the  natural  barrier  and  started  on 
its  way  to  the  lower  Milk  River  Valley  in  Montana,  it  might  be 
diverted  from  its  course  in  Canada. 

Each  country  naturally  desires  to  obtain  as  much  of  the 
available  water  as  possible.  The  Canadians  have  built  large 
irrigation  works  heading  on  St.  Mary  River  immediately  north 
of  the  international  boundary ;  also  other  works,  a  part  of  the 
same  general  system,  which  can  take  water  from  Milk  River. 
In  the  United  States  many  canals  were  built  further  down  on 
Milk  River  and  lands  under  these  developed  to  an  extent  where 
there  was  urgent  need  of  water  during  the  crop  season.  After 
many  negotiations,  a  treaty,  dated  January  11,  1909,  was 
finally  concluded  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
in  Article  VI  of  which  it  is  stated  "that  the  high  contracting 
parties  agree  that  the  St.  Mary  and  Milk  Rivers  and  their 
tributaries  in  the  State  of  Montana  and  the  Provinces  of 
Alberta  and  Saskatchewan  are  to  be  treated  as  one  stream  for 
the  purpose  of  irrigation  and  power  and  the  water  thereof  shall 
be  apportioned  equally  between  the  two  countries." 

With  this  understanding  the  United  States  proceeded  to 
utilize  its  share  of  the  water  and  to  complete  a  conduit  with  a 
capacity  of  850  cubic  feet  per  second  for  taking  water  from  St. 
Mary  River  to  the  headwater  of  Milk  River  down  the  channel 
of  which  the  stored  supply  might  travel  through  a  portion  of 
Canada  and  back  into  the  United  States  to  the  irrigation  sys- 
tem built  by  the  Reclamation  Service  in  the  Milk  River  Valley. 

In  this  instance  the  natural  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  the 


174  WATER  RESOURCES 

way  of  storage  and  diversion  of  water  are  not  as  serious  as 
those  interposed  by  artificial  conditions  such  as  the  laws  of  the 
two  countries  and  the  conflicting  claims  which  arise  because  of 
the  fact  that  there  is  not  enough  water  to  meet  the  desires  of 
both  sets  of  claimants.  The  structures  are  notable  perhaps 
mainly  from  the  fact  that  they  are  built  in  a  northern  region 
where  the  climatic  conditions  are  extreme  and  where  ice  may  be 
expected  to  interfere  with  the  manipulation  of  the  works  at 
critical  times.  The  storage  dams  already  completed  are  similar 
to  those  built  elsewhere,  the  principal  feature  being  the  canal 
about  30  miles  long  which,  starting  from  the  west  side  of  the 
St.  Mary  River,  follows  down  the  valley  and  then,  before  reach- 
ing the  international  boundary,  turns  abruptly,  the  water  being 
continued  across  St.  Mary  River  in  steel  pipes. 

After  entering  the  Milk  River  Valley,  the  water  follows  nat- 
ural channels  into  Canada,  then  along  the  north  side  of  the 
boundary,  and  enters  the  United  States.  It  is  finally  diverted 
into  the  low-lying  reservoirs  in  the  vicinity  of  the  agricultural 
lands.  The  successful  operation  of  these  works  brings  in  many 
complications  because  of  the  long  distance  from  the  reservoir 
on  the  headwater  to  those  in  eastern  Montana.  There  will  also 
be  for  many  years  a  necessity  of  exercising  almost  daily  discre- 
tion in  the  adjustment  of  conflicting  claims  to  the  water  between 
the  citizens  of  the  two  countries. 

DELIVERIES  TO  RESERVOIR.  In  planning  works  for  water 
conservation  the  practicability  of  one  scheme  or  another  often 
rests  on  the  possibility  of  bringing  water  to  a  dry  but  other- 
wise desirable  reservoir  site.  In  several  of  the  storage  works 
just  described  the  necessity  was  shown  of  procuring  water  at 
some  considerable  distance,  taking  it  through  flood  water  canals 
built  for  this  purpose  and  utilized  only  during  the  time  of  an 
excess  of  water  in  the  river.  Such  a  canal  has  been  noted  in 
connection  with  the  Umatilla  Project,  see  PL  XII.  A.  An 
earlier  and  larger  feed  canal  used  also  to  some  extent  for  direct 
irrigation  is  that  shown  in  PI.  XII.  C.  This  is  the  cement- 
lined  conduit  described  on  page  162,  which  takes  the  water  of 
Truckee  River  out  of  the  stream  near  the  lower  end  before 
being  lost  in  its  sinks  and  carries  it  on  a  gently  descending 


NOTABLE  WORKS  175 

grade  along  the  mountain  side  for  thirty-one  miles.  The  canal 
has  a  capacity  of  1,500  cubic  feet  per  second.  For  the  most 
part  it  is  necessarily  narrow  and  deep,  and  occasionally  passes 
through  short  tunnels. 

When  the  cement-lined  canal  from  Truckee  River  leaves  the 
narrow  valley  and  reaches  the  open  country,  it  widens.  Some 
of  the  water  is  there  used  for  irrigation  and  the  remainder  is 
discharged  into  the  reservoir  on  Carson  River  above  the  dam 
described  on  page  163.  The  illustration,  PL  XII.  D,  shows  this 
reservoir  site  not  yet  filled,  with  the  Carson  River  in  the  dis- 
tance and  in  the  foreground  the  water  from  the  Truckee  Canal. 
At  this  point  the  descent  to  the  reservoir  is  rapid.  At  the  lower 
end  a  concrete  chute  is  provided,  inclined  upward  at  the  tip  in 
order  to  throw  the  water  clear  of  the  foundation.  The  picture 
illustrates  an  interesting  phenomenon  in  the  flow  of  water.  It 
is  rushing  down  at  high  velocity  and  at  this  stage  accumulates 
in  a  large  standing  wave  as  shown  in  the  foreground  of  the 
picture.  When  the  volume  increases  somewhat,  however,  this 
wave  is  swept  out  and  with  increased  flow  at  this  point,  the 
stream  continues  unbroken  to  the  very  end  of  the  chute. 

UNDERGROUND  STORAGE.  Nature  has  made  provision  for 
water  storage  not  only  in  the  lakes  and  ponds  which  dot  the 
map,  but  in  less  evident  ways.  In  many  localities  water  is 
stored  underground,  as  noted  on  page  76,  not  in  spacious 
caverns  as  popularly  supposed,  but  in  innumerable  tiny  inter- 
stices between  the  gravel  pebbles  or  particles  of  sand.  Such 
material  has  accumulated  on  the  lowlands  along  the  rivers, 
usually  as  a  result  of  storms  washing  down  the  disintegrating 
covering  of  the  hills.  It  is  evident  that  at  the  time  of  deposition 
of  this  sand  and  gravel  by  rapidly  flowing  water,  the  mass  was 
saturated  and  thus  remains  until  the  water  is  slowly  drawn  off. 

In  the  arid  valleys  of  the  west  the  gravels  have  accumulated 
to  an  extraordinary  depth  because  of  the  fact  that  many  of 
the  streams  from  the  steep  mountains  are  intermittent  and 
torrential  in  character.  They  bring  down  during  annually 
recurring  storms  more  material  than  can  be  transported  across 
the  more  nearly  level  plains  near  the  foot  of  the  hills.  Some 
of  these  mountain  valleys  because  of  later  earth  movements  are 


176  WATER  RESOURCES 

now  completely  inclosed;  the  rivers  no  longer  escape  to  the 
sea,  but  disappear  in  marshes  or  alkaline  lakes.  The  gravel 
terraces  and  valley  slopes  even  where  dry  on  the  surface  have 
received  and  retained  much  of  the  water  which  has  come  from 
the  hills.  When  this  water  is  not  too  heavily  charged  with 
earthy  salts  or  alkali,  it  has  great  value  for  use  in  the  drought- 
stricken  areas.  This  condition  is  particularly  notable  at  the 
outlets  of  the  narrow  canyons  where  the  bowlders  and  smaller 
stones  have  been  deposited  in  the  form  of  low  cones  or  deltas 
over  which  after  storms  the  water  flows,  a  part  of  it  disappear- 
ing into  the  gravel  masses  and  then  slowly  seeping  to  lowlands. 
The  water  thus  temporarily  or  permanently  stored  in  these 
gravel  cones  can  frequently  be  recovered  by  tunnels  or  deep 
trenches  and  thus  utilized  during  the  crop  season.  In  the 
springtime  the  gravel  cones  are  again  replenished  from  the 
floods  and  thus  there  is  provided,  as  above  noted,  a  reservoir 
which  is  highly  effective  in  time  of  need. 

Investigations  of  the  extent  and  availability  of  these  natural 
storage  reservoirs  have  been  made  by  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  and  various  publications  prepared,  notably  in 
relation  to  irrigation  development.1  The  importance  of  these 
waters  stored  underground  is  attested  by  the  vigorously  con- 
tested lawsuits  concerning  their  ownership  and  control — in 
particular  the  case  between  San  Bernardino  County  in  Cali- 
fornia on  one  side  and  Riverside  County  on  the  other  relative 
to  the  artesian  waters  of  San  Bernardino  Valley.  This  case 
has  required  a  more  exhaustive  study  of  details  than,  so  far  as 
known,  has  been  undertaken  in  similar  work.  The  examinations 
extend  into  the  geology,  hydrography,  and  conservancy  fea- 
tures, accompanied  by  the  spreading  of  flood  waters  over  the 

i  See  J.  B.  Lippincott,  U.  S.  G.  S.,  Water  Supply  Papers  Nos.  59  and  60, 
relating  largely  to  the  underground  water  supply  of  San  Bernardino 
Valley;  Mendenhall  in  Paper  No.  142,  giving  details  particularly  of  the 
geology,  and  Charles  Lee  on  the  water  supply  of  the  Owens  Valley  in 
Paper  No.  292.  Also  Frank  H.  Olmstead  on  "Control  of  Mountain  Tor- 
rents by  Check  Dams"  in  Engineering  News,  February  17,  1916,  p.  314; 
H.  F.  Olmstead  in  Engineering  Record,  May  13  and  20,  and  by  O.  E. 
Meinzer  and  A.  J.  Ellis  on  "Ground  Water  in  Paradise  Valley,  Arizona," 
and  by  O.  E.  Meinzer  on  "Ground  Water  in  Big  Smoky  Valley,  Nevada." 


NOTABLE  WORKS  177 

gravel  beds  at  the  edge  of  the  valley.  Extensive  tests  have 
been  made  on  the  effect  of  opening  and  closing  artesian  wells. 

The  water  which  is  stored  underground  can  be  utilized  some- 
times by  direct  gravity  flow  as,  for  example,  where  the  saturated 
deposits  of  sand  and  gravel  lie  on  the  hill  slopes  in  such  position 
that  a  tunnel  can  be  driven  on  slightly  ascending  grade  to 
penetrate  them  and  draw  out  the  waters  which  are  slowly  per- 
colating downwards.  At  various  times  considerable  popular 
interest  has  been  taken  in  these  so-called  underflow  tunnels, 
particularly  out  from  the  Great  Plains.  (See  page  78.)  It  was 
known  that  there  were  considerable  bodies  of  water  under- 
ground saturating  the  sands  and  gravel  and  that  this  water  had 
a  general  movement  toward  the  east  and  south.  The  rate  of 
movement,  however,  was  exaggerated,  as  it  was  not  appre- 
ciated that  this  is  extremely  slow,  being  perhaps  at  the  rate  of 
a  foot  or  two  a  day.  (See  page  79.)  The  level  of  the  country 
drops  towards  the  east  at  the  rate  of  about  seven  feet  to  the 
mile.  If  an  open  trench  or  tunnel  starting  at  the  ground  level 
were  continued  westerly  with  a  rise  of  0.5  foot  per  mile,  at  the 
end  of  the  first  mile  it  would  be  6.5  feet  beneath  the  surface  and 
in  ten  miles  65  feet  deep.  It  was  assumed  that  this  tunnel 
would  tap  the  so-called  underflow  and  permit  it  to  flow  easterly 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Large  amounts  of  money  were  spent  in  building  works  of 
this  kind,  but  after  the  near-by  deposits  were  drained  of  water, 
the  progress  of  percolation  was  found  to  be  so  slow  that  a  very 
small  stream  of,  say,  a  second-foot  or  less  was  obtained.  In 
other  words,  the  cost  of  the  tunnel  was  disproportionately  large 
when  compared  to  the  value  of  the  supply.  An  equal  amount 
of  water  could  have  been  pumped  at  far  less  cost. 

Pumping  to  bring  this  stored  water  to  the  surface  (see  page 
221)  and  to  furnish  an  adequate  supply  for  agriculture  and  other 
purposes  is  being  resorted  to  in  a  continually  increasing  degree. 
An  almost  innumerable  variety  of.  mechanical  appliances  are 
being  improved  and  developments  are  taking  place  along 
various  lines,  particularly  in  the  use  of  electrical  power  and  in 
the  perfection  of  the  steam  and  gas  engines.  The  oldest  and 
simplest  devices  and  one  of  the  most  widely  used  are  various 


178  WATER  RESOURCES 

forms  of  windmill  or  wind  engines.  From  the  earliest  times 
the  power  of  the  wind  has  been  employed  to  supplement  the 
strength  of  man  and  of  animals  in  lifting  water  for  irrigation 
and  drainage.  The  great  mills  built  by  the  Dutch  for  reclaim- 
ing the  lowlands  of  Holland  are  particularly  well  known. 
Modern  developments  have  resulted  in  building  comparatively 
cheap,  rapid-running  steel  mills.  These  are  used  by  the  thou- 
sands, particularly  in  countries,  as  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska, 
where  there  is  considerable  wind  movement  throughout  the  year. 
There  they  are  employed  largely  for  pumping  water  for 
domestic  supply  and  for  watering  animals.  To  a  less  extent 
they  are  utilized  in  bringing  water  which  is  stored  underground 
to  small  reservoirs  or  tanks  on  the  surface,  as  shown  in  PI. 
IV.  A,  where  it  can  be  held  and  usually  warmed  by  the  sun 
until  needed  for  irrigation  of  gardens. 

Where  wind  movement  cannot  be  depended  upon,  steam  power 
is  being  largely  employed.  This  finds  a  competitor  in  the 
gasoline  engine,  especially  in  power  plants.  One  of  these  small 
irrigation  systems  is  shown  in  PL  XIII.  A,  where  there  is  an 
earth  tank  or  pond  built  above  the  general  level  of  the  adjacent 
country.  Water  is  pumped  into  this  from  the  so-called  under- 
flow and  is  drawn  out  as  needed  for  the  irrigation  of  the  sugar 
beets  in  the  vicinity.  (See  also  page  221.) 


Plate  XI.  A. 

Dam    at   head    of    Sunnyside    Canal,   Washington,    diverting    water    which 
comes  from  storage  at  the  head  of  Yakima  River. 


Plate  XI.  B. 
Lower  embankment  of  Deer  Flat  Reservoir,  Boise  Project,  Idaho. 


Plate  XI.  C. 

Laying  concrete  blocks  on  upper  face  of  Owl  Creek  Dam,  Belle  Fourche 
Project,  South  Dakota. 


Plate  XL  D. 
Cold  Springs  Dam  and  outlet  tower,  LTmatilla  Project,  Oregon. 


CHAPTER  X 
USES  OF  WATER 

COSTS  AND  BENEFITS.  The  feasibility  of  water  conservation 
by  storage  is  dependent  largely  upon  questions  of  economics, 
that  is,  of  relative  cost  and  benefits,  and  these  in  turn  rest  upon 
the  uses  to  which  water  may  be  put.  Although  it  might  not 
be  profitable  to  conserve  water  for  irrigation  alone,  it  may 
pay  to  store  it  for  municipal  supply  combined  with  irrigation 
and  power  development. 

Thus  in  any  discussion  of  water  conservation  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  the  ultimate  uses  of  the  water  as  these  bear  directly 
upon  the  practicability  of  incurring  considerable  expenses  for 
any  proposed  system. 

There  is  a  wide  divergence  in  the  uses,  some  being  of  such 
character  that  any  expenditure  would  be  proper,  as,  for 
example,  in  procuring  pure  water  for  drinking;  to  save  and 
prolong  life,  a  man  or  community  will  be  justified  in  going  to  any 
length.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  uses  which  cannot  be 
considered  unless  water  is  abundant  and  cheap.  For  example, 
in  some  manufacturing  processes  the  margin  of  profit  is  so 
small  that  the  question  as  to  whether  the  enterprise  is  worth 
undertaking  is  determined  by  the  fact  as  to  whether  there 
already  exists  plenty  of  good  water  which  can  be  had  at  a  merely 
nominal  cost. 

In  considering  the  uses  of  water  and  consequently  the  expen- 
ditures which  may  be  made  in  conservation  by  storage,  we  may 
divide  these  uses  into  five  classes.1 

First,  support  of  life. 

Second,  production  of  food. 

i  See  Progress  Report  of  the  Special  Committee  on  "A  National  Water 
Law,"  Proceedings  of  the  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  December,  1915,  p.  2747. 


180  WATER  RESOURCES 

Third,  carrying  away  wastes. 

Fourth,  manufacturing,  including  water  power. 

Fifth,  navigation. 

This  relative  rank  has  not  been  widely  adopted  in  the  past ; 
on  the  contrary,  from  a  legal  standpoint,  the  claims  of  naviga- 
tion are  often  given  precedence  over  other  uses.  This  is  because 
of  the  fact  that  in  the  early  days  there  was  usually  plenty  of 
water  for  all  ordinary  purposes.  Manufacturing  had  not 
developed  any  considerable  needs,  while  on  the  other  hand,  the 
transportation  of  persons  and  goods  by  water  was  imperative. 

In  the  treaty  with  Great  Britain  signed  January  11,  1909, 
and  promulgated  May  13,  1910,  relating  to  boundary  waters, 
it  is  stated  in  Article  VIII  that  "The  following  order  of  preced- 
ence shall  be  observed  among  the  various  uses  enumerated  here- 
inafter for  these  waters,  and  no  use  shall  be  permitted  which 
tends  materially  to  conflict  with  or  restrain  any  other  use  which 
is  given  preference  over  it  in  this  order  of  precedence : 

(1)  Uses  for  domestic  and  sanitary  purposes; 

(2)  Uses  for  navigation,  including  surveys  of  canals  for  the 
purpose  of  navigation ; 

(3)  Uses  for  power  and  irrigation  purposes." 

From  the  standpoint  of  human  needs  it  is  probable  that  irri- 
gation, which  means  the  production  of  food,  should  have  pre- 
cedence over  everything  except  domestic  and  municipal  supply, 
and  that  the  development  of  water  power  is  more  important 
to  humanity  than  navigation  as  now  employed.  However  this 
may  be,  there  is  no  question  but  that  all  uses  must  yield  to  those 
of  prolonging  life. 

SUPPORT  OF  LIFE  THE  FIRST  USE  OF  WATER.  The  first  and 
most  important  use  of  water  to  mankind  is  for  drinking  pur- 
poses; this  is  self-evident  since  it  is  not  possible  for  a  human 
being  to  exist  for  more  than  two  or  three  days  without  water. 
More  than  this,  continued  health  is  dependent  upon  having  an 
ample  supply  of  water  of  a  high  degree  of  purity,  especially 
one  not  polluted  with  animal  or  vegetable  matter.  It  is  possible 
to  continue  to  drink  water  containing  a  considerable  amount  of 
mineral  matter  but  on  the  whole  the  more  nearly  pure  the  water 
the  better  the  general  health  of  a  community.  Absolutely  pure 


USES  OF  WATER  181 

water  cannot  be  had,  and  the  nearest  approach  to  this  is  rain 
water,  especially  that  caught  after  the  first  part  of  the  shower 
has  washed  out  most  of  the  dust  in  the  air. 

Because  of  the  prime  importance  of  water  for  drinking  and 
for  domestic  and  municipal  supply,  it  is  practicable  and  desir- 
able to  make  large  expenditures  for  water  conservation  by 
storage  for  such  purposes.  In  fact  the  needs  of  mankind  are 
such  that  no  expense  is  too  great  to  procure  good  water,  assum- 
ing that  such  expenditure  is  advisedly  made.  For  this  reason 
some  of  the  largest  engineering  works  in  the  world  have  been 
built  for  municipal  supply.  Such  work  includes  dams  creating 
reservoirs,  especially  in  the  mountains  where  the  purest  water 
can  be  had,  also  long  aqueducts  constructed  to  bring  this  water 
to  centers  of  population. 

The  amount  which  can  thus  be  expended  in  procuring  good 
drinking  water  is  limited  only  by  the  resources  of  the  people. 
Practically,  however,  other  considerations  have  come  into  play 
and,  unconsciously  at  least,  there  has  been  a  weighing  of  costs 
and  benefits  in  which  human  life  and  comfort  have  not  always 
been  valued  at  their  true  worth.  In  other  words,  while  theoreti- 
cally a  community  should  utilize  all  its  resources  to  procure 
good  water,  practically  the  consideration  of  cost  is  balanced 
against  the  prevailing  opinion  of  the  value  of  human  life  and  the 
risk  which  may  be  assumed.  This  is  not  done  in  a  direct  manner 
but,  until  the  loss  of  life  and  health  becomes  alarming,  the 
ordinary  community  does  not  bestir  itself  to  make  strenuous 
effort  to  procure  good  drinking  water.  Or  to  put  it  in  another 
way,  the  men  in  responsible  charge  usually  have  the  feeling  that 
the  penalty  of  neglect  will  fall  on  some  other  person :  although 
they  would  indignantly  deny  the  charge,  yet  a  careful  analysis 
will  reveal  the  conviction  that  only  the  poorer  or  less  worthy 
members  of  society  will  suffer. 

A  rather  interesting  example  of  justice  in  this  regard  has 
been  furnished  by  a  recent  event  in  one  of  the  smaller  cities  in 
Illinois.  Here  public  sentiment  was  strongly  aroused  because 
of  the  known  pollution  of  the  city  supply  and  the  necessity  of 
taking  immediate  action.  The  mayor,  however,  a  man  of  strong 
personality,  stood  out  against  the  proposed  changes,  urged 


182  WATER  RESOURCES 

that  the  community  had  always  used  the  water  from  that  source 
and,  on  the  ground  of  economy,  was  successful  in  defeating  the 
effort  of  the  great  body  of  citizens.  He  himself  was  one  of  the 
first  victims  of  the  typhoid  epidemic  which  followed:  he  paid 
with  his  life  for  his  attempt  to  cut  down  necessary  expenditures. 
If  each  instance  of  parsimony  or  of  official  indifference  were 
followed  by  such  prompt  penalty  the  loss  of  life  and  health  due 
to  the  neglect  of  water  conservation  and  protection  would  cease.1 

QUANTITY  NEEDED.  The  amount  of  water  actually  needed 
for  supporting  life  is  relatively  small.  It  is  necessary  for  an 
ordinary  individual  to  have  approximately  four  pounds  daily 
and  under  normal  conditions,  comfort  is  assured  only  by  having 
this  amount  available  for  use  at  short  intervals.  Some  animals 
drink  very  little  water,  but  obtain  the  needed  liquid  through  the 
herbage  cropped.  In  the  case  of  the  camel  it  is  stated  that  he 
has  traveled  500  miles  in  40  days  with  only  3  gallons  of  water 
on  the  thirty-second  day  and  3%  on  the  fortieth.2 

Although  a  very  small  quantity,  namely,  a  half  gallon  per 
person  each  day,  is  absolutely  necessary,  yet  in  constructing 
waterwork  systems,  it  has  been  found  that  to  bring  this  half 
gallon  to  the  individual  needing  it  and  to  supply  his  other 
needs  connected  with  cooking,  washing  and  other  household 
purposes,  from  100  to  200  times  this  quantity  is  demanded.  In 
European  cities  40  to  50  gallons  per  day  per  inhabitant  are 
not  unusual.  In  the  United  States  the  quantity  usually  taken 
as  a  fair  minimum  is  100  gallons  per  day  per  unit  of  popula- 
tion. It  is  thus  apparent  that  in  considering  water  conserva- 
tion for  supporting  life,  a  large  allowance  must  be  made  for 
related  purposes. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  call  attention  to  the  value 
put  upon  human  life  as  compared  with  the  cost  of  safeguarding 
it.  One  of  the  best  discussions  on  this  point  is  that  given  by 
Marshall  O.  Leighton  in  Popular  Science  Monthly,  June,  1902, 
Vol.  61,  p.  120,  where  he  arrives  at  an  estimate  for  various  ages 

1  Bass,  F.  H.,  "The  Public  Water  Supply  and  Means  of  Protecting  It," 
1910. 

Hazen,  Allen,  "Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It,"  John  Wiley  &  Sons, 
1914,  196  pages. 

2  Coles-Finch,  "Water,  Its  Origin  and  Use,"  p.  430. 


USES  OF  WATER  183 

based  on  court  decisions,  in  which  award  was  made  largely  on 
life  expectancy  but  without  consideration  of  the  suffering  em- 
bodied nor  any  punitive  measure  nor  solace  to  the  survivors. 
In  some  cases  the  state  law  sets  a  maximum  of  $5,000,  but  by 
taking  an  average  of  all  the  cases  the  values  range  from  approx- 
imately $1,000  at  5  years  of  age  up  to  $3,000  at  16  years,  then 
increasing  rapidly  to  about  $7,000  at  30  years,  dropping 
sharply  to  old  age. 

It  is  apparent  from  the  action  which  has  been  taken  by  courts 
and  by  administrative  bodies  that  there  is  a  certain  pecuniary 
value  kept  in  mind  and  that  this  is  subject  to  the  same  economic 
laws  as  ordinary  commodities.  Unconsciously,  at  least,  some 
such  values  enter  into  so-called  practical  consideration  as  to 
whether  or  riot  a  community  will  incur  large  expenses  for  obtain- 
ing good  water  and  thus  reducing  the  death  rate.  Purely 
humanitarian  considerations  must  be  supplemented  by  the  logic 
of  the  saving  in  money  to  bring  conviction  to  certain  types  of 
mind. 

VALUE  OF  PURE  WATER.  The  value  of  pure  water  is  to  a 
certain  extent  fixed  by  the  value  set  upon  human  life,  as  above 
noted,  and  upon  comfort,  as  well  as  upon  industrial  conditions. 
This  has  been  discussed  by  George  C.  Whipple  in  his  "Value  of 
Pure  Water,"  1907.  Without  pure  water  any  community  is 
subject  to  lower  health  conditions,  and  with  water  occasionally 
polluted  there  is  constant  danger  of  typhoid  and  similar  dis- 
eases. In  fact,  the  typhoid  death  rate  to  a  certain  extent 
marks  the  degree  of  purity  of  water  supply.  Under  ordinary 
conditions  no  town  can  grow  or  increase  in  prosperity  which 
does  not  guard  its  reputation  in  this  way. 

In  speaking  of  pure  water  from  a  sanitary  standpoint  there 
is  not  implied  the  degree  of  purity  required  by  the  chemist.  In 
fact  a  good  or  fairly  wrholesome  water  may  contain  a  consid- 
erable amount  of  coloring  matter  or  of  various  earth  salts  or 
mineral  matter  in  solution ;  also  considerable  organic  matter, 
although  the  presence  of  the  latter  should  give  rise  to  suspicion. 
To  be  safe  as  well  as  palatable  a  water  should  be  reasonably 
clear,  odorless  and  tasteless  and  free  from  contamination  by 
sewage  or  industrial  wastes. 


184  WATER  RESOURCES 

Various  waters  which  are  highly  charged  with  mineral  matter 
may  be  used  for  drinking  and  some  are  regarded  as  having 
desirable  medicinal  properties.  These  have  been  classified  into 
thermal  or  warm  waters,  muriated  or  containing  traces  of 
chlorine,  alkaline  such  as  most  western  waters  containing  sul- 
phates and  carbonates,  sulphated  having  sulphates  in  excess, 
chalybeate  or  iron  bearing,  sulphur,  calcareous,  etc.  That  these 
mineral  waters  are  considered  as  having  value  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  quantities  valued  at  about  $7,000,000  are  disposed 
of  annually,  of  this  over  $1,000,000  being  imported  from  abroad. 

At  the  present  time  the  greatest  activity  in  water  conserva- 
tion as  well  as  in  hydraulic  engineering  in  general  is  in  connec- 
tion with  procuring  water,  suitable  in  quality  as  well  as  quan- 
tity, for  domestic  supply,  especially  for  municipalities.  The 
ideal  condition  for  obtaining  water  for  drinking  and  related 
purposes  is  from  some  elevated  watershed  which  can  be  pro- 
tected from  intrusion  and  where  the  erosion  of  the  soil  may  be 
prevented  by  the  maintenance  of  forests  or  other  suitable  vege- 
tation. Such  conditions  are  found,  for  example,  in  the  water 
supply  of  Portland,  Ore.,  which  obtains  its  water  from  a  national 
forest,  a  vast  tract  of  almost  unexplored  wilderness. 

Favorable  surroundings  such  as  these  are  rare  and  for  large 
cities  such  as  New  York  and  Boston  it  has  been  necessary  to 
purchase  large  areas  of  land  near  the  headwater  of  small  streams 
and  to  build  storage  reservoirs;  in  some  instances  small  towns 
and  factories  have  been  removed  in  order  to  secure  the  neces- 
sary land  and  to  insure  the  purity  of  the  supply.  Among  the 
more  notable  works  are  those  of  the  city  of  Los  Angeles,  Cal., 
which  brings  its  water  supply  from  Owens  Valley,  a  distance 
of  upwards  of  240  miles. 

The  use  of  water  taken  directly  from  a  reservoir  or  stream  is 
gradually  being  abandoned  in  favor  of  some  form  of  filtration. 
Theoretically  the  water  stored  in  a  reservoir  should  be  so  pro- 
tected from  pollution  as  to  be  suitable  for  use,  but  frequently 
it  happens  that  the  waters  are  not  only  contaminated  but  in  the 
reservoir  itself  organic  matter  develops  and  certain  changes 
take  place  causing  the  water  to  deteriorate  and  to  become  unpal- 
atable because  of  color,  taste,  or  odor.  For  this  reason,  and 


USES  OF  WATER  185 

also  because  the  density  of  population  increases  the  correspond- 
ing danger  of  pollution,  more  and  more  complete  systems  of 
filtration  are  being  introduced. 


CHAPTER  XI 

FOOD  PRODUCTION  THE  SECOND  USE  OF 

WATER 

After  air,  without  which  man  can  live  only  about  two  min- 
utes, and  water,  without  which  man  can  exist  for  about  two 
days,  comes  food.  This  he  should  have  daily  and  must  have 
at  short  intervals  to  maintain  strength.  Men  have  lived  30  or 
40  days  or  even  more  without  nutrition,  but  with  rapid  running 
down  of  activities.  All  food  materials,  whether  for  plants  or 
animals,  require  water.  Plants  receive  their  supply  mainly 
through  the  moist  earth,  which  in  ordinary  soils  should  contain 
from  8  to  16  per  cent  of  water  in  order  that  the  plants  may 
thrive.  If  in  certain  soils  the  percentage  drops  much  lower 
the  plants  wilt,  and  if  it  rises  much  higher  many  of  them  become 
drowned  out.  There  is  thus  a  narrow  margin  which  must  be 
preserved  to  enable  plants  to  find  nutriment  for  themselves  and 
to  act  as  food  for  animals.  This  proper  proportion  of  water, 
if  not  the  result  of  natural  conditions,  may  be  produced  arti- 
ficially either  by  irrigation,  by  bringing  water  to  the  plants 
when  needed  when  the  water  content  of  the  soil  drops  below  a 
certain  point,  or,  on  the  other  extreme,  by  drainage  to  remove 
the  excess. 

The  watering  of  livestock  is  a  use  which  may  be  considered 
in  this  connection  and  which  usually  takes  precedence  even  over 
that  of  irrigation  of  the  ground.  Thus  in  this  second  class  of 
uses  of  water,  that  in  food  production,  there  come  the  following 
items. 

(a)  Watering  livestock  and  maintenance  of  animal  industry. 

(b)  The  production  of  crops  by  irrigation. 

(c)  Increase  of  crops  by  drainage. 

In  watering  livestock,  conservation  by  storage  is  widely  em- 


Plate  XII.  A. 

Main  feed  canal,  concrete-lined  section,  for  carrying  flood  water  to  Cold 
Springs  Reservoir,  Umatilla  Project,  Oregon. 


Plate  XII.  B. 
Spillway  of  the  Minidoka  Dam,  Idaho,  with  power  house  in  distance. 


Plate  XII.  C. 

Cement-lined    canal    carrying    the    water    of    Truckee    River    to    Carson 
Reservoir,  Nevada. 


Plate  XII.  D. 
Flume  delivering  water  of  Truckee  River  into  Carson  Reservoir,  Nevada. 


USE  IN  FOOD  PRODUCTION  187 

ployed,  especially  in  great  pastures  and  on  the  plains  where  the 
cattle  roam  at  large.  Throughout  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States,  thousands  of  small  reservoirs  have  been  built  for 
this  purpose.  Some  of  these  are  formed  by  damming  the  little 
streams  and  others  are  depressions  in  the  ground  into  which 
water  is  pumped  usually  by  windmills.  From  the  earliest  antiq- 
uity there  was  resort  to  this  kind  of  water  conservation.  In  the 
biblical  narratives  there  are  accounts  of  deep  wells  or  springs 
developed  and  protected  for  the  purpose  of  watering  the  cattle 
and  sheep. 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE.  Throughout  the  western  two- 
fifths  of  the  United  States  on  much  of  the  best  agricultural 
land  the  rainfall  is  insufficient  in  quantity,  or  so  irregularly 
distributed  throughout  the  year  that  valuable  crops  cannot  be 
produced  with  certainty  without  an  artificial  supply  of  water 
provided  largely  by  storage.  In  the  Mississippi  Valley  and 
to  a  certain  extent  in  most  of  the  states  of  the  Union  there  are 
vast  tracts  of  otherwise  fertile  lands  which  have  an  excess  of 
water  to  a  degree  such  that  crops  cannot  be  profitably  raised. 
Here  the  hydraulic  engineer  is  called  upon  to  solve  the  prob- 
lems of  drainage.  In  many  respects  these  are  similar  to  those 
of  irrigation  and  are  intimately  connected  writh  it,  as  the  object 
to  be  attained  is  the  maintaining  of  the  moisture  in  the  soil 
within  relatively  narrow  limits. 

For  the  production  of  crops  by  irrigation  or  for  relieving 
the  lands  of  an  excess  of  water  by  drainage,  quantities  of  water 
must  be  handled  which  are  relatively  large  when  compared  with 
those  needed  for  city  supply.  For  example,  a  160-acre  farm 
will  require  for  its  irrigation  or  may  need  for  drainage  the 
handling  of  a  volume  of  water  as  large  as  would  be  needed  for 
domestic  or  general  supplies  if  the  area  were  covered  with 
dwelling  houses  or  factories.  When  it  is  considered  that  an 
ordinary  American  city  of,  say,  100,000  persons  covers  an  area 
of  about  10,000  acres,  while  an  irrigation  or  drainage  project 
may  include  100,000  acres  or  more,  some  conception  may  be 
had  of  the  relative  magnitude  of  the  works  needed  for  the  two 
purposes.  Although  for  irrigation  or  drainage  there  must  be 
constructed  works  of  large  capacity,  yet  it  is  not  practicable 


188  WATER  RESOURCES 

to  pay  for  these  works  an  amount  comparable  with  the  expendi- 
tures which  may  properly  be  incurred  by  a  municipality. 

For  farming  purposes  a  cost  of  irrigation  exceeding,  say, 
$100  per  acre,  or  for  drainage,  $50  per  acre,  may  be  practically 
prohibitive,  but  for  municipal  supply  the  cost  of  providing 
water  for  a  similar-sized,  but  densely  populated  area  may  prop- 
erly run  into  thousands  of  dollars.  Thus  the  hydraulic  engi- 
neer, while  encountering  in  either  instance  problems  of  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  water,  adequacy  of  supply  and  difficulties 
of  storage  and  distribution,  must  keep  down  the  cost  of  these 
works  to  a  small  fraction  of  that  which  is  feasible  in  consider- 
ing questions  of  municipal  supply. 

In  preparing  for  irrigation  or  drainage  extensive  studies 
must  be  made  by  the  engineer  and  detailed  maps  prepared  to 
show  the  topography  of  the  country  from  which  water  may  be 
obtained  for  irrigation  and  to  which  it  may  be  carried.  This 
mapping  should  be  accompanied  by  measurements  not  only  of 
the  rainfall,  wind  movement,  and  other  meteorological  phenom- 
ena, but  especially  of  the  flow  of  various  streams  at  typical 
points  on  their  course.  Problems  of  flood  conservation  or 
water  storage  are  usually  involved,  these  being  on  a  larger  scale 
than  those  in  connection  with  municipal  supply.  The  result  of 
these  measurements  of  rainfall  and  run-off  should  be  available 
for  a  considerable  period  of  time  as  the  fluctuations  during  five 
consecutive  years,  particularly  in  the  arid  region,  may  not  fully 
reveal  the  ordinary  conditions.  Ten  years  are  better,  but  it 
appears  from  study  of  data  now  available  that  the  engineer 
cannot  assume  to  have  complete  knowledge  of  the  climatic  fluc- 
tuations from  observations  extending  for  a  shorter  period  than 
half  a  century.  Of  course,  it  is  impossible  to  wait  that  length 
of  time  before  preparing  plans  for  works,  but  when  utilizing 
data  which  extend  over  a  short  period,  a  large  factor  of  safety, 
especially  with  reference  to  extreme  drought  and  flood,  should 
be  employed.  (See  page  57.) 

The  United  States  government  has  recognized  the  necessity 
of  being  prepared  to  furnish  data  of  this  kind  and  has  insti- 
tuted through  its  Weather  Bureau  and  Geological  Survey  a 
series  of  observations  of  climatic  factors  and  stream  flow,  which 


USE  IN  FOOD  PRODUCTION  189 

enables  the  hydraulic  engineer  to  make  his  estimates  with  a  fair 
degree  of  accuracy. 

Rapid  advances  have  been  made  throughout  the  United 
States,  especially  the  western  or  arid  portions,  since  1900,  in 
the  construction  of  larger  storage  reservoirs  and  of  distributing 
canals  for  bringing  water  to  agricultural  lands ;  so  that  in  1918, 
about  16,000,000  acres  were  under  irrigation,  out  of  possibly 
50,000,000  acres  in  all,  which  may  be  watered.  Also  in  other 
parts  of  the  country  drainage  works  have  been  provided  for,  say, 
10,000,000  acres  out  of  70,000,000  acres  needing  such  treat- 
ment to  relieve  the  lowlands  of  an  excess  of  moisture.  No  accu- 
rate statistics  are  available  of  these  acreages.  Large  works 
have  been  and  are  being  built,  notably  in  Egypt,  India,  South 
Africa,  and  Australia,  by  the  British  engineers.  In  other  dry 
lands,  notably  in  Spain  and  Italy,  there  has  been  a  gradual 
development  and  in  many  cases  restoration  and  enlargement  of 
great  works  built  centuries  ago. 

While  the  necessities  are  not  such  as  to  justify  as  large 
expense  per  unit  of  water  stored,  in  the  case  of  irrigation  as  in 
municipal  supply,  yet  the  values  involved  are  sufficiently  great 
to  warrant  large  outlay  for  irrigation  works.  For  example, 
comparing  the  land  in  its  original  condition  as  shown  in  PL 
XIII.  C,  with  the  companion  view,  PI.  XIII.  D,  it  is  apparent 
at  once  that  this  desolate  area,  with  an  occasional  patch  of 
prickly  pear,  has  little,  if  any,  value.  It  may  sell  at  the  govern- 
ment price  of  $1.25  per  acre  and  be  used  as  a  stock  range  when 
there  may  be  some  herbage  following  the  infrequent  rains.  But 
compare  with  this  the  same  area  after  water  has  been  brought 
to  it  from  a  storage  reservoir  located  in  the  mountains.  Here 
the  settler  is  able  almost  the  first  year  to  secure  a  fair  crop 
and  the  land  provided  with  water  will  pay  an  interest  charge 
on,  say,  $100  per  acre.  If  we  assume  an  average  cost  of  irri- 
gation at  $50  per  acre  and  that  a  tract  of  100,000  acres  can 
thus  be  supplied,  it  is  assumed  that  an  outlay  of  $5,000,000 
would  be  justified.  For  this  sum  works  of  considerable  magni- 
tude can  be  built.  In  this  view,  PI.  XIII.  D,  the  area  has  been 
planted  in  alfalfa,  the  most  important  crop  of  an  irrigated 
region.  This  is  not  only  cut  as  hay,  crop  following  crop, 


190  WATER  RESOURCES 

throughout  the  season,  but  is  especially  valuable  in  its  green 
state  in  the  production  of  pork  and  in  the  feeding  of  farm 
animals. 

INTERNAL,  EXPANSION.  It  is  by  means  of  this  kind  that  it 
becomes  possible  to  greatly  extend  the  area  of  land  available 
for  agriculture  and  related  purposes,  and  thus  to  realize  the 
dreams  of  increase  of  available  territory  without  encroaching 
upon  neighbors.  The  engineer  by  conservation  of  water  is  thus 
creating  new  and  valuable  agricultural  lands  and  making  oppor- 
tunities for  self-supporting  citizens  in  localities  where  up  to  this 
time  there  has  been  merely  waste  space.  He  is  adding  not 
merely  to  the  material  prosperity  of  the  country,  but  more  than 
this,  he  is  increasing  the  opportunities  for  better  citizenship, 
for  greater  health  and  comfort  and  for  the  enjoyment  of  many 
of  the  higher  ideals  of  life.  He  is  bringing  about  an  internal 
expansion  of  usable  territory  far  more  valuable  than  the  mere 
extension  of  external  boundaries. 

This  internal  expansion  is,  in  effect,  the  putting  into  practice 
of  the  principles  of  conservation;  a  term  which  really  implies 
good  business  management,  or  common  sense  applied  to  the  use 
of  natural  resources.  The  engineer,  finding  that  certain  areas 
are  neglected  or  that  agriculture  is  not  being  practiced  to  its 
highest  efficiency,  knowing  also  that  the  soil  is  fairly  good  and 
that  the  climate  is  adapted  to  the  production  of  crops,  naturally 
inquiries  into  the  reasons.  He  tries  to  ascertain  the  cause  for 
the  lack  of  full  use  of  the  lands.  This  he  discovers  is  usually 
connected  with  an  excess  or  deficiency  of  water  supply.  He  finds 
that  the  plants  useful  for  mankind  are  adapted  to  a  relatively 
wide  range  of  soil  and  temperature,  but  are  more  narrowly  lim- 
ited by  the  quantity  of  moisture.  More  than  this,  he  appre- 
ciates that  the  control  of  the  water,  while  in  part  an  agricul- 
tural operation,  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  application  of 
engineering  principles. 

Knowing,  for  example,  that  a  certain  area  is  arid  and  desert, 
or  subject  to  periodical  drought,  the  first  consideration  of  the 
engineer  is  to  seek  out  the  sources  from  which  water  may  be 
obtained  and  brought  to  the  land  to  raise  the  water  content 


USE  IN  FOOD  PRODUCTION  191 

of  the  soil  from  the  original  1  or  2  per  cent  up  to  10  per  cent  or 
more. 

On  the  other  hand,  finding  a  neglected  or  abandoned  swamp 
or  overflowed  area  or  one  whose  soil  is  habitually  wet  or  heavy, 
the  problem  presented  to  the  engineer  is  to  take  away  this  excess 
and  bring  the  water  content  down  from  the  saturated  condition 
of  100  per  cent  to  15  per  cent  or  less  of  water. 

These  two  operations  are  intimately  connected  because  of 
the  fact  that  when  water  has  been  provided  in  abundance  for  a 
piece  of  arid  land  the  tendency  is  to  use  the  water  in  excess  and 
to  saturate  it  to  an  extent  such  that  a  large  part  of  the  area 
is  injured  for  agricultural  purposes.  It  thus  becomes  neces- 
sary to  provide  means  for  reclaiming  these  saturated  lands ; 
drainage  is  found  necessary  in  localities  where  in  their  original 
state  the  lands  were  dry  and  barren. 

Irrigation  and  drainage  are  thus  related,  much  in  the  same 
way  that  city  water  supply  and  sewage  are  connected.  The 
better  the  water  supply,  the  more  complete  should  be  the  sewage 
system.  The  larger  the  supply  of  water  for  irrigation,  the 
more  necessary  the  installation  of  effective  drains  and  waste- 
ways.  This  very  simple  relation  has  very  frequently  been  over- 
looked or  at  least  ignored  to  an  extent  such  that  throughout 
arid  North  America,  15  per  cent  to  20  per  cent  of  the  irrigated 
lands,  formerly  producing  large  crops  under  irrigation,  have 
been  ruined  by  careless  handling  of  the  water  and  by  lack  of 
drains.  The  surface  has  been  converted  into  swamps  or  covered 
with  alkali  over  tens  of  thousands  of  acres. 

The  watering  of  lands  by  artificial  means  to  increase  crop 
production,  is  widely  practiced  in  the  western  or  arid  portions 
of  the  United  States,  as  well  as  in  the  dryer  parts  of  the  Old 
World.  It  necessitates  the  application  of  many  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  hydraulic  engineering  and  in  addition,  as  above  noted, 
requires  for  success  a  knowledge  of  agriculture  and  related 
economic  matters.  There  is,  on  the  whole,  a  far  larger  extent 
of  dry  land  than  can  ever  be  provided  with  sufficient  water  for 
maturing  crops.  Thus  land  values,  in  a  large  way,  depend  upon 
the  ability  to  obtain  water ;  many  other  industries  besides  agri- 


192  WATER  RESOURCES 

culture  can  be  developed  only  in  localities  where  an  artificial 
water  supply  can  be  had. 

Irrigation  in  the  United  States  began  with  a  few  hundred 
thousand  acres  in  1880,  by  1890  the  irrigated  area  had  increased 
to  approximately  4,000,000  acres,  in  1900  to  8,000,000  acres, 
and  in  1910  to  14,000,000,  representing  a  total  investment  of 
approximately  over  $300,000,000.  The  hydraulic  works  for 
conserving  and  distributing  the  scanty  water  supply  have  been 
built  to  a  point  where  all  of  the  easily  available  sources  of  water 
have  been  utilized.  Future  progress  must  necessarily  be  rela- 
tively slow  and  expensive  because  of  dependence  upon  works  of 
increasing  magnitude  and  cost  per  acre  served.  This  cost, 
beginning  originally  with  $15  or  $20  per  acre  from  small  canals 
built  by  farmers,  has  increased  to  an  average  of  about  $50  per 
acre  for  supplies  obtained  from  the  larger  and  more  difficult 
undertakings  such  as  the  Roosevelt  Reservoir  in  Arizona  and 
the  Arrowrock  Dam  in  Idaho.  The  most  notable  advances  in 
irrigation  development  were  made  possible  by  the  passage  of  the 
Reclamation  or  Newlands  Act,  described  on  page  149. 

Nearly  95  per  cent  of  the  lands  irrigated  in  the  United  States 
obtain  their  water  supply  by  gravity  from  surface  streams.  A 
relatively  small,  but  valuable  area,  is  watered  from  wells  by 
means  of  pumps  driven  by  steam,  gasoline  or  hydro-electric 
power.  Most  of  the  streams  of  the  arid  region  have  their 
source  in  the  snow-capped  or  forested  mountains,  from  which 
they  flow  with  rapid  descent,  passing  usually  through  a  series 
of  upland  valleys  or  parks  and  then  cut  their  way  through 
rocky  defiles  entering  upon  the  lower  valleys.  In  these  the 
streams  spread  out  and  usually  lose  a  great  part  of  their 
water  in  broad  sandy  channels.  The  most  effective  development 
of  the  stream  therefore  is  that  in  which  the  water  is  diverted 
near  the  upper  edge  of  these  lower  valleys  and  carried  out  in 
channels  so  built  as  to  conserve  the  supply  which  would  other- 
wise be  lost  in  the  sandy  channels. 

DIVERSION  OF  WATER.  Water  is  ordinarily  diverted  from 
the  stream,  not  by  lifting  or  pumping  from  the  stream  as  some- 
times inferred,  but  by  taking  advantage  of  the  slopes  of  the 
country.  For  example,  the  streams  on  issuing  from  the  moun- 


USE  IN  FOOD  PRODUCTION  193 

tains  have  a  rapid  fall  of  from  10  to  50  feet  per  mile  or  more. 
Water  will  flow  with  moderate  rapidity  in  a  well-built  canal 
having  a  fall  of  1  foot  per  mile  or  even  less.  Assuming,  then, 
that  the  stream  enters  the  valley  on  a  descending  grade  of  10 
feet  per  mile  and  the  canal  is  started  out  alongside  the  stream 
with  a  fall  of  1  foot  per  mile,  at  the  end  of  10  miles  the  canal 
will  be  90  feet  above  the  river  and  must  necessarily  have  swung 
back  away  from  the  river  to  be  upon  supporting  ground.  Thus 
it  results  that  the  canal  departs  rapidly  from  the  river  and, 
following  the  contour  of  the  slopes  of  the  foothills,  is  in  position 
to  discharge  water  toward  the  river  over  or  through  the  lands 
which  lie  below  the  canal. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  taking  of  water  from  the  river  into 
the  canal,  it  is  usual  to  provide  a  low  overflow  dam  or  weir  which 
extends  from  the  head  gate  of  the  canal  across  or  diagonally 
into  the  channel  of  the  stream.  If  the  topographical  conditions 
are  favorable,  this  weir  may  be  omitted  or  in  case  of  small 
irrigation  canals,  where  the  owners  are  unable  to  provide  a 
permanent  dam,  it  is  customary  in  summer  or  on  the  approach 
of  the  low  water  season  to  build  a  temporary  obstruction  of 
stone  and  brush,  turning  the  water  toward  the  head  gate  of  the 
canal.  As  the  water  continues  to  fall,  this  dam  is  made  more 
nearly  impervious  by  adding  straw,  earth  or  sandbags.  It  is 
necessary  to  provide  some  form  of  head  gate  to  control  the 
amount  of  water  which  enters  the  canal.  Otherwise  in  time  of 
flood  the  excess,  getting  into  the  canal,  might  overtop  the  banks 
and  wash  them  away.  Head  gates  are  also  needed  to  regulate 
the  quantity  in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  irrigators. 
These  usually  consist  of  stout  walls  and  frame  built  of  timber, 
masonry  or  concrete  with  sliding  gates  of  wood  or  steel.  The 
water  enters  under  the  raised  gates,  the  quantity  being  con- 
trolled by  adjusting  their  position. 

The  canal  leading  from  the  head  gate  usually  passes  through 
a  rocky  or  rough  country,  involving  large  expense  in  construc- 
tion before  the  more  nearly  level  open  land  is  reached.  In  this 
upper  part  of  the  course  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  carry  the 
water  in  tunnels  through  projecting  cliffs  or  to  provide  suitable 
timber,  metal,  or  masonry  flumes  to  take  it  across  rough  coun- 


WATER  RESOURCES 

try.  When  once  the  canal  is  out  upon  the  agricultural  land  it 
is  usually  excavated  with  broad,  shallow  sections,  keeping  the 
water  surface  as  high  as  possible,  consistent  with  safety,  so  that 
water  may  be  diverted  to  the  adjacent  fields  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  canal.  The  fall  or  slope  of  the  canal,  taken  in  connection 
with  the  cross  section,  is  so  proportioned  as  to  give  a  velocity 
in  ordinary  earth  of  a  little  over  two  feet  a  second — not  enough 
to  erode  the  sides  and  bottom  nor  so  stagnant  as  to  deposit  silt 
usually  carried  by  mountain  streams.  Considerable  skill  and 
experience  are  required  on  the  part  of  the  designing  engineer  to 
lay  out  the  canal  system  and  its  laterals  or  distributing  branches 
so  as  to  avoid  erosion  and  sedimentation. 

QUANTITY  USED.  The  amount  of  water  required  for  raising 
crops  varies  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil.  The  plants 
themselves  need  a  certain  minimum  supply,  but  a  far  larger 
quantity  is  required  to  saturate  the  surrounding  soil  to  such 
a  degree  that  the  vitalizing  processes  can  continue.  Agricul- 
tural investigators  have  found  by  direct  measurements  that 
from  300  to  500  pounds  of  water  or  even  more  are  required  for 
each  pound  of  dry  matter  produced.  When  the  ground  is  first 
irrigated  a  larger  quantity  of  water  than  in  later  seasons  is 
sometimes  required  to  saturate  the  subsoil.  The  water  turned 
upon  the  surface  and  absorbed  during  the  first  year  or  two  has 
frequently  been  equivalent  to  an  amount  sufficient  to  cover  the 
ground  to  a  depth  of  10  feet  or  more,  and  in  many  localities  an 
amount  equal  to  a  depth  of  5  feet  or  more  per  annum  has  been 
thus  employed  for  several  years.  The  pioneers  of  irrigation 
usually  apply  too  much  water  to  their  fields,  often  to  their 
disadvantage. 

The  quantity  of  water  used  in  irrigation  is  usually  stated  in 
one  of  two  ways:  (1)  In  terms  of  depth  of  water  on  the  surface; 
(2)  in  quantities  of  flowing  water  through  the  irrigating  season. 
In  the  humid  regions  the  rainfall  is  usually  from  three  to  four 
inches  per  month  during  the  crop  season.  In  the  arid  region, 
where  the  sunlight  is  more  continuous,  and  the  evaporation 
greater,  there  should  be  for  ordinary  crops  at  least  enough 
water  during  the  growing  season  to  cover  the  ground  from 
four  to  six  inches  in  depth  each  month  or  from  a  third  to  half 


USE  IN  FOOD  PRODUCTION  195 

of  an  acre-foot.  The  second  method  of  stating  the  quantities 
necessary  to  irrigation  is  of  convenience  when  considering  a 
stream  upon  which  there  is  no  storage. 

It  is  estimated,  as  noted  on  page  105,  that  one  cubic  foot  per 
second,  flowing  through  an  irrigating  season  of  90  days,  will 
irrigate  100  acres.  One  second- foot  will  cover  an  acre  nearly 
two  feet  deep  during  24  hours,  and  in  90  days  it  will  cover  180 
acres  one  foot  deep,  or  100  acres  to  a  depth  of  1.8  feet,  or  21.6 
inches.  This  is  equivalent  to  a  depth  of  water  of  a  little  over 
seven  inches  per  month  during  the  season  of  90  days  or  about 
one  and  three-quarters  acre-feet.  Successive  years  of  deficient 
water  supply,  notably  in  southern  California,  have  served  to 
prove  that,  with  careful  cultivation,  crops,  orchards,  and  vine- 
yards can  be  maintained  by  using  very  small  quantities  of  water. 
In  some  cases  an  amount  not  exceeding  six  inches  in  depth  was 
applied  during  the  year,  this  being  conducted  directly  to  the 
plants  and  the  ground  kept  carefully  tilled  and  free  from  weeds. 

The  amount  of  land  which  can  be  irrigated  with  a  given  quan- 
tity of  water,  or  the  relation  which  these  bear  to  each  other,  is 
commonly  expressed  by  the  term  duty  of  water,  as  discussed  on 
page  232.  The  investigation  of  the  duty  of  water  is  one  of  the 
most  complicated  problems  of  irrigation.  There  is  such  a  dif- 
ference in  methods  of  measurement,  soils,  crops,  climatic  condi- 
tions, ways  of  application  of  water,  and  frequency  of  watering 
that  the  statements  made  by  different  persons  are  almost  irrec- 
oncilable. In  general,  more  water  is  used,  or  the  duty  is  less, 
on  the  newer  land  than  on  that  which  has  been  cultivated  by 
irrigation  for  some  years. 

The  rainfall  largely  affects  the  quantity  used,  and  as  the 
precipitation  is  exceedingly  irregular,  as  noted  on  page  55,  the 
amount  of  water  applied  each  year  fluctuates.  Seepage  like- 
wise complicates  matters,  for  a  field  may  often  receive  consid- 
erable water  indirectly  and  require  less  by  direct  application. 
The  duty  of  water  is  quoted  at  from  50  to  500  acres  or  more 
to  the  second-foot.  For  convenience  the  unit  of  100  acres  to 
the  second-foot  has  been  considered  as  indicating  careful  irri- 
gating, although  in  the  more  southwestern  portion  of  the  arid 


196  WATER  RESOURCES 

region  this  would  be  considered  low,  and  in  the  northern  part 
high. 

Since  the  value  of  water  per  second-foot  varies  largely  with 
its  duty,  it  will  be  recognized  that  this  value  is  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult to  estimate.  However,  it  is  necessary  to  arrive  at  certain 
averages  in  order  to  approximate  the  possible  values  of  a  river, 
or  of  a  reservoir,  in  the  future  development  of  the  country.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  a  perpetual  water-right  is  worth  from 
$25  to  $50  per  acre  in  a  grain  or  grazing  country,  and  as  high 
as  from  $100  to  $500  per  acre  for  fruit-land,  rising  in  southern 
California  for  the  best  citrus  lands  even  to  $1,000  or  more  per 
acre.  Assuming  an  annual  supply  of  water  as  being  worth  $50 
per  acre  irrigated  and  a  duty  of  1  second-foot  to  100  acres,  this 
quantity  would  be  worth  $5,000  and  a  stream  furnishing  a 
steady  supply  of  500  second-feet  wrould  have  a  value  to  the 
community  of  $2,500,000.  Considering  stored  water  as  having 
a  value  of  $100  per  acre  of  reclaimed  land,  producing  fruit  or 
other  valuable  crops,  and  with  a  duty  of  2^  acre-feet  of  stored 
water  to  each  acre,  then  a  storage  reservoir  capable  of  holding 
and  delivering  250,000  acre-feet  might  justify  an  expenditure  of 
$10,000,000. 

COST  OF  WATER.  The  first  cost  of  water  and  the  annual  cost 
of  maintenance  form  very  considerable  items  in  the  budget  of 
the  irrigator.  As  an  equivalent  for  this  expenditure  he  must 
expect  to  receive  a  return  per  acre  for  his  crops  greater  than 
that  obtained  by  the  so-called  "dry  farmer."  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  he  can  raise  few,  if  any,  crops  without  irrigation,  but  with 
it  he  should  be  able  to  obtain  a  yield  far  in  excess  of  the  ordi- 
nary production  because  of  his  ability  to  control  the  water  sup- 
ply and  to  use  it  on  a  land  from  which  the  sunshine  is  not  cut 
off  by  frequent  rain  clouds. 

The  cost  of  water  is  usually  considered  under  two  heads, 
first,  that  of  the  original  investment  in  obtaining  water  by  reser- 
voirs, canals  and  distributing  works  and,  second,  the  annual 
cost.  The  first  cost  ranges  from  $10  to  $15  per  acre,  in  case  of 
the  older  and  more  easily  built  ditches,  up  to  $50  or  $75  per 
acre  or  even  more  where  it  has  been  necessary  to  provide  expen- 


USE  IN  FOOD  PRODUCTION  197 

sive  storage  reservoir  or  to  overcome  natural  obstacles  by  build- 
ing tunnels  or  masonry  and  concrete  conduits. 

The  average  first  cost  of  water  in  the  United  States  is  not 
far  from  $50  per  acre.  The  commercial  enterprises  which  have 
undertaken  to  build  irrigation  works  have  usually  attempted 
to  control  the  land  reclaimed  and  to  sell  land  and  water  together 
at  a  price  of  $100  per  acre  or  more,  including  some  improve- 
ments in  the  nature  of  removing  the  native  vegetation,  leveling 
the  soil  and  planting  alfalfa.  Without  such  control  of  the 
land,  investments  of  this  kind  have  rarely  been  profitable.  In 
case  of  works  built  by  the  government  the  right  to  the  use  of 
water  is  sold  in  twenty  annual  installments  without  interest. 
In  a  relatively  few  cases  the  owners  of  the  farms  do  not  own  a 
perpetual  right  attached  to  the  land  but  rent  water  annually, 
but  this  condition,  unfavorable  for  permanent  development,  is 
being  done  away  with. 

All  irrigation  works  must  be  operated  and  maintained  at  an 
annual  expenditure,  this  being  a  notable  item,  especially  where 
it  is  necessary  to  clean  the  canal  bed  and  banks  of  large  quan- 
tities of  accumulated  mud,  weeds  and  so-called  moss,  and  to 
make  repairs  of  more  or  less  temporary  structures  or  to  meet 
extraordinary  conditions  such  as  damages  from  floods  or  cloud- 
bursts. On  the  simpler  individual  or  community  systems,  the 
cost  may  be  50  cents  per  acre  per  annum,  especially  where  the 
owners  of  the  canals  do  the  work  themselves  and  are  willing  to 
submit  to  many  inconveniences  and  occasional  crop  losses.  On 
the  larger,  better-managed  systems  where  the  works  are  kept 
in  good  condition,  the  operation  and  maintenance  may  be  from 
$1  per  acre  up  to  $1.50  or  $2  per  acre  each  year.  In  appor- 
tioning this  charge  it  should  be  placed  as  nearly  as  possible  on 
a  metered  basis,  the  payment  for  operation  and  maintenance 
being  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  water  used  in  order  to 
insure  economy.  As  a  rule  too  much  water  is  put  on  the  ground, 
and  it  has  been  found  that  the  less  the  amount  of  water  applied, 
consistent  with  fair  plant  growth,  the  larger  and  better  the 
crop  yields  and  the  less  the  injury  by  seepage  to  the  lands  in  the 
vicinity. 

ECONOMIC   CONSIDERATION.      Throughout   the   arid   regions, 


198  WATER  RESOURCES 

which  include  a  great  part  of  the  land  area  of  the  world,  irriga- 
tion is  essential  to  agriculture.  Its  extension  should  be  urged 
to  the  limits  of  the  available  water  supply  as  made  evident  by 
careful  research.  In  the  more  humid  regions  where  occasional 
droughts  reduce  the  crop  value,  irrigation  is  being  practiced  as 
an  insurance.  The  building  of  works  for  this  purpose  has  been 
slow,  however,  because  of  the  fact  that  during  wet  years  the 
tendency  is  to  forget  its  importance  and  when  drought  condi- 
tions develop,  the  time  has  passed  when  water  can  be  applied  to 
the  best  advantage.  The  extent  to  which  irrigation  may  be 
developed  in  the  United  States  is  being  studied  by  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  through  its  systematic  measurements 
of  streams  and  researches  with  underground  waters,  also  by  the 
Reclamation  Service  in  accordance  with  its  organic  law. 

Not  all  of  the  apparently  favorable  localities  can  be  utilized 
because  of  the  great  expense  involved  in  building  reservoirs, 
canals  and  other  works  as  compared  with  present  values,  but 
with  the  settlement  of  the  country  and  with  greater  skill  and 
experience  acquired  in  raising  and  marketing  crops  there  is  a 
corresponding  advance  in  land  values  and  in  the  ability  to  pay 
for  expensive  undertakings.  All  of  the  easy  or  cheap  irrigation 
schemes  have  been  entered  upon;  beginning  with  those  which 
have  cost  only  a  few  dollars  per  acre  for  the  water,  other  pro- 
jects have  been  undertaken  involving  expenditures  of  upwards 
of  $50  or  more  per  acre.  These  more  expensive  undertakings 
have  not  proved  financially  profitable  to  the  investors  because  of 
the  fact  that  the  values  created  by  the  investment  in  canals  and 
reservoirs  have  been  widely  diffused  and  have  not  been  recover- 
able by  the  men  who  furnished  the  money.  Thus  future  develop- 
ment in  irrigation  must  rest  largely  upon  obtaining  public 
funds  or  upon  utilizing  the  credit  of  the  communities  which  are 
benefited  by  the  works — the  direct  losses  of  interest  or  of  profit 
on  the  investment  being  more  than  balanced  by  the  indirect 
gains. 


Plate  XIII.  A. 

Underground  storage  of  water  in  the  Great  Plains  area.     Pumping  from 
the  so-called  underflow  near  Garden  City,  Kansas. 


Plate  XIII.  B. 
Building  canal  by  wheeled  scraper,  Boise  Project,  Idaho. 


Plate  XIII.  C. 
Desert  land  before  irrigation,  Shoshone  Project,  Wyoming. 


Plate  XIII.  D. 

Alfalfa   and   hogs,    profitable    products    of    the    arid    region.      Sun    River 

Project,  Montana. 


CHAPTER  XII 
RECLAMATION  INVESTIGATIONS 

The  vast  extent  of  land  throughout  the  United  States  whose 
value  is  dependent  upon  the  ability  to  control  or  secure  water, 
is  almost  beyond  comprehension.  Although  surveys  have  been 
carried  on  by  public  and  private  agencies  for  many  years  there 
yet  remain  great  areas  to  be  examined  and  the  surrounding 
conditions  studied  with  reference  to  obtaining  an  adequate  sup- 
ply of  water  or  of  regulating  the  excess.  The  problems  of 
rendering  these  areas  useful  are  by  no  means  easy;  their  solu- 
tion rests  upon  research,  upon  obtaining  fairly  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  the  physical  conditions  such  as  the  water  suppty  avail- 
able at  different  points,  the  existence  of  feasible  reservoir  sites 
and  the  limiting  conditions  of  topography,  climate,  and  soil. 
There  is  also  another  class  of  items  to  be  considered,  namely, 
the  financial  or  economic,  embracing  the  practicability  of  util- 
izing the  land  after  water  has  been  provided  or  controlled  and 
of  disposing  of  the  crops. 

The  key  to  the  irrigation  situation  is  usually  in  the  water 
supply  and  this  in  turn  depends  largely  upon  the  questions  of 
economically  saving  water  which  otherwise  would  run  to  waste. 
The  methods  of  measurement  of  the  streams  have  already  been 
described  on  page  102  and  reference  also  given  to  the  surveys  of 
reservoir  sites  on  page  123.  Having  these  and  other  related 
facts,  a  full  study  is  possible  and,  as  stated  previously,  the  im- 
portance of  the  subject  demands  thorough  research  accom- 
panied by  the  employment  of  the  best  engineering  ability  and 
experience  in  constructing  and  financing  the  works  which  may 
be  built. 

No  two  irrigation  or  drainage  enterprises  are  alike,  and  each 
project  generally  offers  a  wide  range  of  alternatives  in  the  way 


200  WATER  RESOURCES 

of  difficult  locations  for  reservoir  or  dam,  various  sources  of 
water  to  be  impounded,  height  of  dam,  and  selection  of  the  lands 
to  be  reclaimed.  The  economics  of  future  construction,  and  even 
more  important  those  of  operation  and  maintenance,  are  de- 
pendent upon  the  judgment  exercised  in  the  preliminary  work. 

On  the  basis  of  the  conclusions  reached  by  the  first  studies 
the  whole  physical  and  financial  situation  may  be  considered  and 
adjustment  made  between  the  assumed  benefits  and  costs  which 
are  to  be  incurred.  As  a  rule,  in  nearly  all  enterprises  of  this 
kind,  the  final  cost  has  far  exceeded  the  original  estimates  by 
two  or  three  times  the  amount  at  first  assumed.  This  has  been 
due  to  several  causes,  but  primarily  to  the  many  unknown  con- 
ditions to  be  met  and  the  tendency  to  assume  that  when  these 
unknowns  are  revealed  there  will  be  no  surprise.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  results  of  investigations  are  full  of  surprises — for 
example,  the  foundations  for  proposed  dams  are  frequently 
found  to  be  far  more  imperfect  than  there  was  reason  to  antici- 
pate, or  after  the  estimates  are  completed  the  price  of  mate- 
rial and  labor  has  often  advanced  to  a  point  not  previously 
known. 

Another  cause  of  increase  of  final  cost  over  estimates  is  the 
fact  that  as  work  progresses  there  is  a  tendency  to  add  more 
details  and  to  depart  from  the  somewhat  simple  plans  at  first 
adopted.  There  are  always  demands  for  larger  or  more  sub- 
stantial works  or  for  more  bridges,  water  gates  or  other  struc- 
tures which  at  first  were  not  considered  necessary.  Whatever 
the  cause  may  be  of  such  increase,  the  lesson  to  be  drawn  is  that 
in  preparing  financial  estimates  there  must  be  a  liberal  addition 
to  cover  contingencies  and  an  insistence  upon  adherence  to  the 
original  plan. 

FINANCING.  The  financing  of  irrigation  or  of  drainage 
projects  has  been  a  matter  largely  of  private  enterprise  or 
speculation.  At  first  works  could  be  built  at  relatively  small 
cost  because  of  the  fact  that  the  opportunities  were  almost 
untouched  and  there  was  wide  range  of  choice.  The  easy  under- 
takings were  naturally  seized  upon  by  individuals  and  small 
ditches  and  canals  built.  As  the  work  became  more  and  more 
difficult,  associations  were  formed  and  cooperative  enterprises 


RECLAMATION  INVESTIGATIONS  201 

on  the  part  of  neighbors  were  begun.  These  in  turn  gave  way 
to  stock  companies  and  to  corporate  efforts. 

The  first  undertakings  were  largely  successful  financially 
because  of  the  fact  that  most  of  the  work  was  done  by  the  farmer 
or  landowners ;  if  any  misfortunes  occurred  these  were  accepted 
by  the  community  as  a  matter  of  course  and  further  efforts 
undertaken.  With  the  larger  projects,  however,  especially  those 
financed  by  outside  capital,  there  was  often  less  rigid  super- 
vision accompanied  by  greatly  increased  cost.  There  was  also 
a  marked  tendency  to  frequent  changes  as  the  work  progressed, 
when  it  became  evident  that  improvements  could  be  made. 

The  outcome  of  this  evolution  was  that  practically  all  of  the 
larger  irrigation  projects,  especially  those  involving  water  stor- 
age, were  found  to  be  unprofitable  to  the  investor;  while  the 
values  of  near-by  town  property  were  increased,  and  the  con- 
struction of  railroads  and  of  other  enterprises  was  stimulated, 
yet  the  builders  of  the  works  did  not  share  in  this  general  pros- 
perity but  lost  the  interest  and  often  the  principal  on  their 
investment.  The  only  notable  exceptions  were  in  cases  where 
the  men  who  built  the  irrigation  works  were  also  owners  of  adja- 
cent land.  In  these  cases  the  losses  on  the  works  were  made 
up  by  increase  in  value  of  other  holdings. 

Because  of  this  condition,  the  taking  up  of  new  and  large 
enterprises  such  as  were  needed  by  the  country,  became  neg- 
lected and  it  was  only  from  the  passage  of  the  Reclamation  Act 
in  1902  that  work  on  a  large  scale  was  again  undertaken. 

SURVEYS.  Thorough  research,  scientific  and  economic,  should 
precede  drainage  projects.  The  first  work  is  to  initiate  sur- 
veys and  examinations  of  the  country  to  be  reclaimed.  The 
results  of  these  afford  the  firm  foundation  of  fact  upon  which  the 
imagination  of  the  engineer  may  erect  in  broad  outlines  the 
results  to  be  attained.  As  a  rule  too  little  care  and  expenditure 
have  been  devoted  to  this  fundamental  matter.  There  is  usually 
impatience  for  immediate  conclusions  and  an  unwillingness  to 
expend  any  considerable  amount  of  time  and  money  in  these 
preliminary  studies.  It  is  safe  to  say,  however,  that  within 
reasonable  limits,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  spend  too  much  money 
on  ascertaining  the  facts  of  topography,  water  supply,  soil, 


202  WATER  RESOURCES 

climatic,  and  market  conditions.  For  every  dollar  thus  wisely 
expended,  it  may  be  possible  to  save  tenfold  in  future  construc- 
tion and  operation.  If  there  is  any  one  thing  which  character- 
izes the  reclamation  work  of  the  past  and  which  has  led  to 
financial  failures,  it  is  the  fact  that  too  little  time  and  money 
have  been  devoted  to  research. 

There  is  a  wide  range  of  conditions  to  be  studied.  Presum- 
ably the  general  location  of  the  lands  to  be  benefited  is  fixed, 
but  the  precise  outlines  are  usually  unknown.  The  question  of 
water  supply  available  for  these  lands  is  usually  undetermined 
or  the  amount  of  water  which  must  be  removed  by  drainage  is 
unknown.  Both  of  these  matters  involve  a  wide  difference  in 
possible  quantities,  and  without  having  a  fairly  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  these  quantities  money  may  be  wasted  either  in  building 
works  too  large  or  too  small.  In  case  of  irrigation  works 
deriving  their  water  from  the  high  mountains  or  from  rolling 
foothills,  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  a  quite  complete  topo- 
graphical map  of  the  entire  catchment  basin  to  ascertain  the 
extent  and  character  of  the  slopes  and  to  acquire  data  as  to  the 
floods  or  droughts  which  may  be  anticipated.  In  some  coun- 
tries, as  in  portions  of  the  United  States,  good  contour  topo- 
graphical maps  have  been  made  of  many  of  the  catchment  basins. 
These  are  invaluable  in  the  consideration  of  the  entire  project 
and  in  the  limitations  which  may  be  set  upon  it. 

The  study  of  the  catchment  area  and  topographical  maps 
showing  the  principal  features  tributary  to  a  reclamation  pro- 
ject, will  usually  reveal  the  opportunities  for  water  storage. 
There  may  be  a  number  of  alternatives  presented,  and  the 
merits  of  each  of  these  should  be  carefully  studied,  not  only  by 
maps  but  on  the  ground  itself  and  with  particular  reference  to 
underground  conditions  such  as  the  probability  of  securing  safe 
and  tight  foundations  for  dams. 

The  topographic  surveys  of  the  country  from  which  water 
may  be  obtained  for  irrigation,  or  of  lands  to  be  benefited  by 
such  irrigation  or  by  drainage,  must  be  supplemented  by  a  vari- 
ety of  examinations  of  many  related  conditions.  The  best  prob- 
able location  of  the  works  having  been  determined  by  field  and 
office  study,  examinations  should  be  made  of  the  character  of 


RECLAMATION  INVESTIGATIONS  203 

the  ground  covered  or  traversed  by  the  works  to  ascertain  the 
probable  cost  of  excavation  of  the  different  materials  encoun- 
tered, the  porosity  of  the  soil,  its  ability  to  hold  or  deliver  water, 
or  to  sustain  structures  of  heavy  weight.  For  example,  if  a 
canal  should  be  built  along  a  hillside,  especial  study  should  be 
made  as  to  the  practicability  of  constructing  this  in  the  ground 
or  in  flumes.  Its  safety  from  earth  or  rock  slides,  either  into 
the  canal  or  of  the  entire  structure  itself,  must  be  the  subject 
of  consideration. 

Throughout  the  entire  area  to  be  irrigated  or  drained,  both 
the  soil  and  particularly  the  subsoil  should  be  examined  with 
reference  not  only  to  the  probable  fertility  of  the  surface  soil, 
but  also  to  the  density  of  the  subsoil  and  its  behavior  with 
reference  to  percolation  of  water  into  or  out  of  it.  The  exami- 
nations thus  lead  into  a  variety  of  lines  not  merely  confined  to 
the  apparent  agricultural  values  but  to  the  mechanical  or  even 
chemical  features  of  the  underlying  rocks. 

Many  of  the  items  of  research  in  these  preliminary  examina- 
tions as  to  the  feasibility  of  a  project  are  of  a  nature  such  that 
the  work  on  them  should  be  continued  indefinitely.  For  exam- 
ple, it  is  desirable  in  the  preliminary  operations  to  ascertain 
the  rainfall  and  evaporation  at  or  near  the  reservoir  site.  These 
observations  should  be  kept  up  even  after  the  works  are  built, 
as  they  afford  data  needed  in  the  proper  operation  of  them. 
Also  in  connection  with  the  behavior  of  water  underground,  the 
height  of  the  water  table,  both  in  the  irrigated  and  drained 
areas,  should  be  noted  from  season  to  season  and  arrangement 
made  for  systematically  obtaining  and  recording  these  facts 
which  show  the  changes  which  are  taking  place  beneath  the 
surface. 

After  the  financial  arrangements  have  been  completed  on  the 
basis  of  the  preliminary  examinations  and  surveys,  it  usually 
becomes  necessary  to  make  additional  adjustments.  These  final 
surveys,  after  the  funds  have  been  acquired,  are  often  needed 
in  order  to  make  certain  readjustments  arising  from  financial  or 
legal  complications.  There  is  usually  great  pressure  on  the 
engineer  to  prepare  the  plans  and  specifications  and  let  the  con- 
tract as  soon  as  possible  after  the  financial  arrangements  have 


204  WATER  RESOURCES 

been  made,  because  of  the  fact  that  as  a  rule  interest  charges 
begin  to  run.  It  is  of  the  highest  importance,  however,  that 
these  final  surveys  and  preparations  of  detailed  specifications 
be  given  adequate  time,  as  many  economies,  as  above  stated, 
depend  upon  the  decisions  reached  regarding  alternative  meth- 
ods. There  must  therefore  be  a  balancing  between  the  demands 
for  immediate  construction  and  the  necessity  of  taking  proper 
time  for  the  exercise  of  judgment.  As  a  rule  the  speed  with 
which  Americans  proceed  to  the  work  is  the  subject  of  astonish- 
ment to  foreign  engineers,  who  feel  that  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  longer  time  than  is  usually  given  in  the  United  States  to  the 
maturing  of  the  final  surveys. 

The  results  of  surveys  and  examinations  are  embodied  in 
broadly  developed  plans  usually  for  consideration  of  various 
large  alternatives.  As  a  rule,  there  may  be  present  two  or  even 
three  or  more  ways  of  achieving  results,  these  differing  mainly  in 
estimated  cost.  It  is  probable,  for  example,  that  one  plan  for  a 
feasible  enterprise  may  involve,  for  an  irrigation  work,  the 
reclamation  of,  say,  10,000  acres  at  a  cost  of  $50  per  acre.  A 
modification  of  this  plan  or  an  alternative  proposed  may  enable 
the  bringing  in  of  12,000  acres  at  a  cost  of  perhaps  $52  per 
acre.  The  question  then  arises  as  to  whether  a  somewhat  larger 
cost  per  acre  may  be  justified  in  view  of  the  increased  acreage 
which  may  be  utilized.  If  the  enterprise  is  purely  a  money- 
making  proposition  in  which  the  promoters  are  concerned  with 
getting  back  their  investment  at  the  earliest  possible  date,  they 
may  prefer  the  cheaper.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  money  is 
furnished  by  the  public  or  by  semipublic  institutions  such  as 
irrigation  districts,  the  general  benefit  to  the  entire  country 
may  justify  the  larger  and  more  expensive  undertaking. 

Fundamental  questions  of  this  kind  can  be  considered  on 
their  merits  only  when  the  larger  plans  have  been  developed  to 
a  point  where  it  is  possible  to  make  direct  comparison  of  costs 
and  benefits.  For  this  reason,  as  before  stated,  the  surveys 
and  examinations  must  not  merely  be  thorough,  but  the  plans 
based  upon  these  must  be  sufficiently  broad  to  permit  a  full 
grasp  of  the  situation,  and  to  make  adjustments  to  meet  the 
financial  limitations. 


RECLAMATION  INVESTIGATIONS  205 

DETAILED  PLANS.  The  general  plan  finally  agreed  upon  as 
to  location  and  character  of  works  must  be  supplemented  by 
detailed  drawings  and  specifications  such  as  to  enable  expe- 
rienced contractors  to  bid  intelligently  upon  each  of  the  items 
involved.  It  is  characteristic  of  American  enterprises,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  European,  for  the  promoters  to  push  construc- 
tion even  before  the  plans  have  been  fully  matured.  There  is 
an  impatience  for  visible  results  on  the  part  of  the  investors, 
whether  individuals  or  the  public,  which  will  not  brook  delay. 
Wise  managers  have  frequently  yielded  to  these  importunities 
even  though  they  know  the  final  outcome  will  be  unnecessarily 
expensive.  This  is  not  wholly  confined  to  America;  in  various 
times  and  places  has  been  repeated  and  attributed  to  popular 
heroes,  ancient  and  modern,  the  story  of  the  foreman  who 
"built  the  bridge  before  the  engineer's  picture  was  ready!" 
This  is  an  amusing  instance  of  efficiency  in  saving  time  in  an 
emergency,  but  for  a  permanent  work  it  probably  means  that 
future  generations  must  pay  several  prices  for  the  immediate 
saving  thus  made. 

There  is  probably  no  one  place  where  greater  economy  can 
be  secured  than  in  the  repeated  study  and  the  drawing  again 
and  again  of  the  plans  until  a  high  degree  of  perfection  is 
reached  in  all  essential  details.  It  is,  of  course,  easy  to  look 
back  after  a  structure  is  completed  and  see  how  certain  more 
or  less  important  features  could  have  been  modified  to  advan- 
tage. In  the  case  of  well-considered  works,  these  savings 
detected  after  completion  are  usually  small,  but  in  many  in- 
stances the  responsible  men  in  charge  are  too  well  aware  that 
if  they  had  been  allowed  proper  time  to  plan  out  all  details, 
they  would  neA^er  have  located  the  works  at  the  place  nor  built 
them  of  the  character  as  finally  finished. 

STANDARD  FORMS.  For  the  execution  of  any  large  work  of 
irrigation  or  drainage  there  are  required  plans  of  almost  innu- 
merable smaller  structures.  For  example,  in  turning  water 
to  the  irrigated  farms,  there  are  required  hundreds  of  small 
flumes  or  gates,  also  many  measuring  devices,  bridges  and 
culverts.  Although  at  the  present  time  the  construction  of 
such  works  has  not  advanced  to  a  point  where,  as  in  railroad 


206  WATER  RESOURCES 

building,  there  are  certain  widely  adopted  sizes  and  shapes,  yet 
it  is  practicable  to  adopt  certain  standards  such  as  experience 
is  showing  to  be  most  efficient. 

The  Reclamation  Service  of  the  United  States  government 
is  taking  the  lead  in  research  and  in  devising  standard  plans 
based  on  studies  of  the  most  economical  sizes  and  dimensions, 
such  as  of  the  side  slope  of  canals  and  drains,  bottom  widths 
and  velocity  for  conduits  of  different  kinds.  These  matters 
have  been  worked  out  for  various  existing  projects,  noting  the 
dimensions  which  have  been  found  most  suitable  or  best 
adapted  to  the  prevailing  conditions.  For  example,  in  the 
case  of  slopes,  the  field  studies  having  shown  that  where  the 
material  to  be  excavated  for  a  canal  is  relatively  hard  and  not 
easily  eroded,  there  it  may  be  possible  to  introduce  and  use 
slopes  higher  than  the  average  employed  elsewhere,  with  corre- 
sponding economy  in  size  of  cross  section  of  the  canal. 

The  most  important  matter,  however,  in  considering  general 
dimensions  is  that  having  to  do  with  the  future  operation  of 
the  works.  In  many  localities  irrigation  systems  have  been 
planned  with  the  idea  of  dividing  and  subdividing  water  into 
smaller  and  smaller  streams  until  each  division  is  accurately 
proportioned  to  the  needs  of  the  farms  to  be  served.  This  has 
been  done  under  the  assumption  that  the  irrigators  should  have 
a  certain  steady  flow  of  water  from  the  main  system.  Later 
it  was  demonstrated  that  greater  economy  of  time  on  the  part 
of  the  irrigator,  and  of  water,  could  be  had  by  turning  to  him 
not  a  small  stream  but  one  sufficiently  large  to  irrigate  his 
entire  farm  in  a  relatively  few  hours.  Then  it  was  apparent 
that  certain  structures  and  conduits  must  be  enlarged  to  meet 
the  new  conditions.  In  this  case  too  great  care  had  been 
devoted  to  the  exact  proportion  of  details  and  not  sufficient 
allowance  made  for  changes  which  might  take  place.  Thus  at 
the  outset  the  general  dimensions  of  waterways  must  be  set 
from  a  full  consideration  of  the  ultimate  operating  methods 
and  costs. 

CONSTRUCTION  METHODS.  The  methods  of  construction 
must,  of  course,  be  adapted  not  only  to  the  material  available, 


RECLAMATION  INVESTIGATIONS  207 

but  to  the  peculiar  conditions  of  labor  which  may  prevail  in 
the  vicinity  and  especially  to  the  matter  of  transportation. 
As  a  rule  irrigation  or  drainage  works,  especially  the  former, 
are  built  under  pioneer  conditions  far  in  advance  of  actual 
settlement  of  the  country  and  of  construction  of  wagon  roads 
or  railroads.  This  is  a  condition  which  is  not  always  appre- 
ciated by  the  man  who  may  be  inclined  to  criticise  the  works 
after  they  have  been  finished  and  in  use.  The  construction 
methods  which  may  be  necessary  at  a  point  fifty  miles  from  a 
settlement  and  at  a  locality  to  which  access  can  be  had  only 
over  rough  mountain  trails,  must  necessarily  be  in  striking 
contrast  to  those  alongside  of  a  through  line  of  a  railroad,  one 
which  may  be  built  after  the  works  are  completed  and  as  a  result 
of  such  works. 

The  materials  to  be  used  under  such  conditions  are  limited 
to  the  immediate  vicinity.  If  plenty  of  rock  is  to  be  had, 
masonry  may  be  the  best.  If  the  rock  is  poor,  it  may  be  pos- 
sible to  consider  concrete,  if  the  cost  of  bringing  in  cement  is 
not  prohibitive.  Otherwise,  earth,  if  available,  must  be  used. 
This  illustrates  the  point  that  the  surveys  and  examinations 
which  precede  the  preparation  of  any  set  of  plans  must  be  of 
such  character  as  to  answer  these  points  when  they  come  up 
for  careful  consideration. 

Under  modern  methods  of  construction,  the  greater  part 
of  the  work  is  executed  under  carefully  drawn  contracts  in 
which  responsible  builders  agree  to  execute  a  certain  described 
structure  for  a  definite  price  per  cubic  yard  or  per  item  speci- 
fied. In  work  of  a  character  of  which  the  nature  is  well  known 
or  where  the  same  operation  is  performed  over  and  over  again, 
it  is  possible  for  an  experienced  contractor  to  ascertain  the 
cost  in  advance  within  narrow  limits  and  to  exercise  his  expe- 
rience in  handling  men  or  materials  to  secure  greater  economy, 
and  consequent  profits,  than  his  competitors.  In  proportion, 
however,  as  the  work  is  pioneer  in  character  and  involves  un- 
known conditions,  the  preparation  of  a  bid  becomes  more  and 
more  of  the  nature  of  gambling  upon  chances.  Thus  enter 
certain  disagreeable  or  even  disastrous  conditions.  There  are 
always  contractors  more  or  less  responsible  who  are  willing 


208  WATER  RESOURCES 

to  take  their  chances ;  usually  those  men  who  know  least  about 
the  probabilities  of  the  case  offer  to  do  the  work  at  a  cost  less 
than  that  given  by  the  more  experienced  and  safer  men.  If 
conditions  turn  out  better  than  anticipated,  they  may  make 
considerable  sums  of  money.  If,  however,  unusual  storms 
occur  or  the  rock  is  found  to  be  of  different  character  than 
anticipated,  the  contractor  may  fail,  with  consequent  delay  to 
the  work  and  increased  expense,  both  in  litigation  and  in 
securing  a  new  contractor. 

It  is  to  the  advantage  of  all  concerned  to  remove  as  far  as 
possible  the  element  of  chance  in  construction  work;  in  other 
words,  to  make  the  preliminary  research  and  examination  as 
complete  as  possible.  It  may  be  advisable,  for  example,  not 
merely  to  make  a  number  of  test  pits  in  the  soil  and  to  put 
down  drill  holes,  but  also  to  lay  out  and  build  well-planned 
roads  to  reach  the  place  of  construction,  also  to  open  up  a 
considerable  part  of  the  foundations  which  are  to  be  excavated 
so  that  the  experienced  contractor  will  be  able  to  see  from  actual 
operation  on  the  ground  what  are  some  of  the  difficulties  to  be 
met.  In  the  meantime,  it  is  often  necessary  for  the  engineer 
in  responsible  charge  to  firmly  reject  offers  for  work  which 
are  made  by  men  of  relatively  small  experience  or  who  propose 
to  experiment  with  novel  machinery  or  methods.  While  they 
may  succeed,  the  probabilities  against  this  are  so  great  that 
it  is  not  wise  to  incur  the  risk  of  failure  and  litigation. 

In  the  building  of  large  irrigation  works,  especially  those 
involving  storage  reservoirs,  the  skill  of  the  engineer  is  thus 
called  into  play  in  many  fields,  not  only  in  ordinary  hydraulic 
construction  but  in  developing  hydro-electric  power,  in  many 
other  mechanical  lines  and  in  laying  out  or  executing  the  work. 
Experience  has  shown  that  wherever  the  work  is  of  a  simple 
character  such  that  it  can  be  easily  described,  as,  for  example, 
the  building  of  earthen  canals,  the  contract  system  is  most 
economical,  but  where  unknown  difficulties  are  involved,  such 
as  the  excavation  of  foundations  in  a  new  or  remote  country, 
where  the  unexpected  is  likely  to  happen,  then  under  present 
conditions  it  is  more  economical  to  carry  on  operations  by  what 
is  known  as  force  account.  Under  this  system  the  work  is 


RECLAMATION  INVESTIGATIONS  209 

supervised  and  directed  by  the  engineer  and  the  plans  may  be 
modified  day  by  day  to  fit  the  conditions — thus  securing  under 
wise  management  the  highest  economy  as  well  as  efficiency. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
IRRIGATION  STRUCTURE  AND  METHODS 

DIVISIONS  OF  AX  IRRIGATION  PROJECT.  Most  irrigation  sys- 
tems may  be  considered  as  divided  into  several  portions  or  units. 

First,  the  collecting  unit,  consisting  of  reservoir  or  other 
devices,  such  as  wells  and  pumps,  for  obtaining  the  water; 

Second,  the  diversion  unit,  which  includes  the  dam  in  the 
river  at  the  head  of  the  main  canal. 

Third,  the  carrying  or  trunk  line  canals. 

Fourth,  the  distribution,  taking  in  the  minor  canals  which 
carry  water  to  the  fields. 

By  making  such  a  division  of  parts  and  of  expenditures 
incurred  on  each,  it  is  possible  to  make  comparisons  between 
irrigation  systems  of  different  size  and  character.  Many  do 
not  have  reservoirs,  but  derive  their  supply  directly  from  the 
streams.  In  such  instances  it  would  not  be  profitable  to  make 
comparisons  with  the  entire  cost  of  a  system  which  does  include 
a  reservoir. 

In  other  cases  the  carriage  portion  is  negligible  because  of 
the  fact  that  irrigation  of  the  dry  lands  begins  at  a  point 
immediately  below  the  headworks ;  in  other  instances  there  is 
a  long  main  canal,  built  at  large  expense  on  rocky  hill  slopes, 
to  carry  water  to  remote  tracts. 

Comparison  of  cost  of  construction,  operation  and  mainte- 
nance of  small  irrigation  systems  which  have  no  storage  nor 
main  canal  is  thus  made  possible  with  similar  costs  of  the 
distribution  portions  of  larger  enterprises. 

COLLECTING  UNIT.  A  description  has  already  been  given 
of  some  of  the  notable  reservoir  and  other  devices  for  collecting 
water  for  irrigation,  notably  on  pages  153  to  175,  together  with 
brief  statements  of  methods  of  constructing  dams,  also  details 
of  some  of  the  larger  works  already  built.  A  comparison  of 


IRRIGATION  STRUCTURE  AND  METHODS    211 

the  cost  of  these  works  yields  many  points  of  interest,  espe- 
cially in  considering  the  value  of  the  results  and  the  magnitude 
of  the  work  already  undertaken,  also  by  inference  the  large 
investment  which  must  be  made  in  the  future  in  connection  with 
other  projects  which  may  be  found  to  be  practicable. 

DIVERSION  UNIT.  Next  in  importance  to  these  dams  built 
for  the  purpose  of  creating  storage  reservoirs  are  the  somewhat 
similar  structures  erected  for  diversion  of  water  from  the 
stream  channels  into  the  main  canals.  Some  of  these  act  as 
combined  storage  and  diversion  works,  but  the  characteristic 
feature  of  a  diversion  dam  is  the  fact  that  it  is  a  necessary 
adjunct  to  the  headworks  of  a  canal  or  to  the  carrying  system 
for  an  irrigation  project. 

Diversion  dams  as  a  rule  differ  from  storage  dams  in  that 
they  are  relatively  low  and  are  located  in  or  across  the  main 
drainage  lines,  being  thus  subject  to  overflow.  As  a  rule  there 
is  accumulated  against  them  the  debris  carried  by  the  river,  and 
the  pond  or  storage  capacity  at  first  created  by  building  the 
dam  is  destroyed  in  a  few  years  by  this  accumulation.  The 
original  or  simplest  type  of  diversion  dam  consists  merely  of 
bowlders  or  rocks  placed  across  a  river  or  diagonally  upstream 
into  the  current.  In  times  of  low  water  a  relatively  tight 
barrier  is  thus  built  of  stones  and  dirt  with  brush  or  boughs 
of  trees.  Following  the  development  of  the  country  and  the 
necessity  for  more  permanent  structures,  low  solid  masonry 
dams  or  sills  have  been  built  or  walls  of  concrete — these  in  turn 
being  replaced  by  more  carefully  designed  overflow  dams, 
raising  the  water  to  still  greater  height  and  permitting  the 
construction  of  higher  canals. 

The  proper  uses  of  the  waters  conserved  by  storage  in  the 
reservoir  previously  described  are  made  possible  in  many  in- 
stances by  providing  these  subsidiary  or  secondary  dams,  built 
across  the  streams,  not  for  storage,  but  for  raising  the  water 
or  controlling  it  so  that  it  will  flow  into  the  head  of  the  main 
irrigation  canals.  One  of  the  best  examples  of  such  a  structure 
is  that  shown  in  PI.  II.  D,  which  is  built  across  Salt  River, 
Arizona,  and  serves  to  divert  the  water  stored  and  released  from 
Roosevelt  Reservoir.  This  dam  is  38  feet  high  and  1,000  feet 


212  WATER  RESOURCES 

long,  the  river  in  flood  overflowing  the  entire  crest.  As  will  be 
seen  in  the  view,  canals  head  at  each  end  of  the  dam,  that  on  the 
north  side,  in  the  foreground  of  the  view,  being  the  Arizona 
Canal  with  capacity  of  2,000  cubic  feet  per  second  and  22 
miles  in  length.  In  the  distance  is  the  South  Canal  with 
capacity  of  1,200  second- feet. 

Another  dam  similar  in  character  is  the  Whalen  in  eastern 
Wyoming  on  North  Platte  River.  (See  PL  XIV.  A.)  This  is  29 
feet  high  and  300  feet  long,  the  floods  pouring  over  the  entire 
length  of  the  crest  as  shown  in  the  view.  In  the  foreground  is 
the  Interstate  Canal  with  capacity  of  1,400  second- feet  and 
a  length  of  95  miles.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  is  the 
head  of  the  Ft.  Laramie  Canal,  1,430  second- foot  capacity,  and 
26  miles  long. 

In  the  planning  of  a  diversion  dam,  it  is  customary  to  place 
the  gates  at  the  end  of  the  dam  in  such  a  way  that  the  water 
will  be  taken  out  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  flow  of  the  stream 
as  in  the  above-described  views.  By  arranging  sluice  gates  in 
the  dam,  it  is  thus  possible  during  high  water  to  scour  away 
any  sand  or  gravel  which  may  accumulate  in  front  of  the  canal 
head  gate. 

CARRYING  UNIT.  Starting  out  from  the  diversion  dam  is 
the  main  canal  with  its  control  gates  and  spillways.  It  usually 
winds  along  in  a  general  course  nearly  parallel  to  that  of  the 
river  until  with  less  grade  than  that  of  the  natural  stream  it 
has  succeeded  in  reaching  an  altitude  where  it  can  swing  away 
from  it  along  the  edge  of  the  valley  land.  Sometimes  two  main 
canals  are  thus  built,  one  on  each  side  of  the  river.  These  may 
continue  for  many  miles  before  reaching  any  considerable  area 
of  agricultural  land.  There  they  usually  divide  or  branch  to 
cover  the  principal  body  of  the  farming  area.  The  number  of 
miles  of  main  and  branch  canals  traversed  by  the  water  before 
reaching  the  irrigable  lands  varies  greatly  with  the  different 
systems. 

For  the  purpose  of  comparison,  it  has  been  found  desirable, 
as  before  stated,  to  distinguish  this  part  of  the  irrigation  sys- 
tem, beginning  at  the  diversion  dam  and  extending  down  and 
including  the  main  and  principal  branches,  as  the  carrying 


IRRIGATION  STRUCTURE  AND  METHODS    213 

system.  It  is  composed  of  relatively  large  canals,  deep  and 
narrow  when  in  solid  rock  or  sidehills,  and  broad  and  shallow 
when  out  in  the  open  plains  and  built  in  ordinary  earth.  The 
cross  section  thus  varies  from  place  to  place,  dependent  upon 
the  ground  in  which  the  canal  is  built  and  upon  the  slope  which 
may  be  given.  Usually  there  is  need  of  keeping  the  altitude 
of  the  canal  as  high  as  possible,  reducing  the  fall  per  mile  to 
the  minimum  of  a  foot  or  less,  thus  necessitating  a  large  cross 
section.  Occasionally,  however,  especially  where  the  canal  first 
leaves  the  river,  the  condition  may  be  such  that  greater  slope 
can  be  given  and  the  cross  section  reduced;  in  some  cases  it  is 
lined  with  concrete  to  produce  the  greatest  velocity  and  quan- 
tity of  discharge  in  the  smallest  amount  of  excavation. 

At  each  diversion  dam  are  gates  or  controlling  works  per- 
mitting water  to  enter  the  head  of  the  main  canal.  Imme- 
diately below  these  gates  are  usually  devices  for  permitting  the 
water  to  flow  back  to  the  river  in  case  of  accident  and  to  scour 
out  any  sediment  deposited  below  the  gates.  An  automatic 
spillway  is  shown  in  PI.  XIV.  A — in  this  case  it  is  placed  adja- 
cent to  the  dam,  but  usually  such  a  device  is  located  a  mile  or 
so  farther  down  the  canal  if  the  topography  of  the  ground 
permits. 

In  the  first  few  miles  below  the  diversion  dam  the  location  of 
the  main  canal  is  necessarily  near  the  river  and  often  on  steep 
hillsides.  Occasionally  it  is  necessary  to  pass  it  through 
tunnels  or  to  line  it  as  shown  in  Pis.  XII.  C  and  XIV.  B.  After 
getting  clear  of  the  river,  however,  the  construction  is  usually 
in  open,  somewhat  rolling,  country,  and  is  in  earth  where  the 
operations  are  relatively  simple  of  execution.  This  is  illus- 
trated in  PL  XVII.  A  and  PL  XIII.  B,  the  latter  showing  ex- 
cavations by  plowing  and  scraping  and  building  up  of  a  high 
bank  on  the  lower  side  of  the  canal,  in  general  appearance  re- 
sembling a  railroad  grade,  the  chief  difference  being  that  earth 
is  carefully  compacted  as  it  is  deposited. 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  main  canal  is  not  built  of 
full  size  when  first  constructed  because  of  the  fact  that  for 
many  years  there  will  not  be  demand  for  enough  water  to  fill 
the  canal.  Under  such  conditions,  enlargements  must  be  made 


214  WATER  RESOURCES 

from  time  to  time.  Usually  this  work  is  done  after  the  end  of 
the  crop  season,  when  water  can  be  taken  out  of  the  canal,  but 
where  the  irrigation  season  is  long  or  continues  practically 
throughout  the  year,  as  in  Arizona,  it  is  desirable  to  enlarge  the 
canal  while  water  is  flowing  in  it. 

DISTRIBUTING  UNIT.  An  irrigation  project  may  be  so  fortu- 
nate as  not  to  need  any  storage  works  and  the  topography  of 
the  country  may  be  such  that  its  carrying  system  is  insignifi- 
cant ;  but  in  all  cases  the  distribution  is  a  vital  point.  While 
apparently  simple,  in  that  it  consists  of  miles  of  smaller  canals 
and  ditches  located  according  to  the  slope  of  the  country,  yet 
in  practical  operation  the  distributing  system  involves  more 
detailed  problems  in  proportion  to  the  cost  than  do  the  works 
for  the  storage  or  carriage  of  water.  It  is  usual  for  the  highest 
engineering  skill  to  be  employed  in  the  planning  and  building 
of  a  great  dam  or  large  canal.  Unfortunately  the  same  degree 
of  skill  has  rarely  been  utilized  in  laying  out  the  distribution 
conduits.  Hence,  it  has  come  about  that  in  the  actual  opera- 
tion an  unnecessarily  large  number  of  difficulties  and  sources  of 
expense  have  frequently  arisen,  more  than  should  have  occurred 
had  the  system  been  planned  by  men  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  problems  of  handling  the  water  to  the  farms. 

The  condition  is  similar  to  that  in  railroad  locations  where 
the  early  railroads  were  built  mainly  with  reference  to  con- 
struction cost.  Now,  with  larger  experience,  the  ease  and 
economy  of  construction  are  kept  secondary  to  the  require- 
ments of  operating,  since  these  go  on  forever  while  the  con- 
struction costs  are  only  for  a  short  period. 

The  distributing  system  consists  of  the  so-called  laterals 
or  smaller  canals  taken  from  the  side  of  the  main  or  branch 
canals.  The  distinction  is  purely  arbitrary  and  yet  is  one  of 
importance.  The  laterals  should  be  planned  and  built  not  only 
to  command  the  largest  possible  area,  but  to  permit  the  most 
economical  handling  of  the  water  to  the  farms.  If  too  small,  it 
is  not  possible  to  serve  the  lands  rapidly,  and  if  too  large,  the 
channels  become  choked  with  weeds  or  mud  and  introduce 
unnecessary  cost  in  cleaning. 

The   main   canals    soon   after    reaching   the   irrigable   lands 


Plate  XIV.  A. 
Whalen  diversion  dam  of  North  Platte  Project,  Nebraska- Wyoming. 


Plate  XIV.  B. 

A  lined  tunnel  with  approach  to  canal.     Grand  Valley  Project,  Colorado, 
capacity  1,425  second-feet. 


Plate  XIV.  C. 

Farm   lateral   delivering   water   to   furrows,   using   canvas   dam,    Shoshone 
Project,  Wyoming. 


Plate  XIV.  D. 

Using  water,  stored  by  Roosevelt  Reservoir,  for  irrigation  of  young  orange 
grove,  applying  it  by  furrows.    Salt  River  Valley,  Arizona. 


IRRIGATION  STRUCTURE  AND  METHODS    215 

begin  to  divide  and  send  off  branches,  these  in  turn  delivering 
water  to  smaller  canals  or  laterals.  At  each  point  of  division 
it  is  necessary  to  provide  suitable  gates  or  control  works  so 
that  the  proper  amount  may  be  admitted  to  each  lateral,  the 
quantity  being  regulated  from  day  to  day  in  accordance  with 
the  demands  of  the  farmer.  A  view  of  one  of  these  laterals  is 
shown  in  PL  V.  B  and  another  in  PL  XVI.  A.  Such  laterals  in 
turn  divide  and  finally  deliver  water  to  what  are  known  as  the 
farm  laterals,  these  being  of  a  capacity  sufficient  for  one  or  two 
separate  farms.  In  PL  XIV.  C  is  shown  one  of  these  small 
farm  laterals  taking  water  for  the  first  time  to  desert  land, 
soaking  it  thoroughly  and  permitting  cultivation.  Water  is 
usually  turned  from  the  farm  laterals  either  by  small  wooden 
gates  or  by  temporary  dams  of  wood  or  canvas  as  can  be  seen 
in  this  picture.  A  hole  in  the  bank  is  dug  with  shovels  and, 
when  no  longer  needed,  is  quickly  filled.  The  farm  laterals  in 
turn  take  the  water  to  each  field  or  tree  as  shown  in  PL  XIV.  D. 

STRUCTURES.  In  connection  with  the  carrying  and  distribut- 
ing of  the  water  which  has  been  diverted  in  the  irrigation 
canals,  almost  innumerable  structures  are  needed.  The  more 
important  of  these  are  described  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

FLUMES.  Care  is  taken  in  laying  out  the  laterals  to  keep  the 
water  flowing  on  as  gentle  a  grade  as  possible  and  thus  to  reach 
the  highest  spots  of  the  farm  lands.  Even  with  the  greatest 
ingenuity  in  fitting  the  topography,  there  are  occasional  condi- 
tions where  water  must  be  carried  across  a  depression.  This 
is  usually  done  by  some  form  of  open  flume,  the  older  and 
cheaper  of  wood,  others  of  metal.  Concrete  is  also  used,  as  in 
the  long  conduit  which  takes  the  water  of  the  Tieton  River  in 
Washington,  shown  in  PL  XV.  A,  the  flume  winding  along  the 
hillside.  This  is  composed  of  short  concrete  sections,  cast  in 
suitable  steel  forms,  the  work  being  done  along  the  valley  where 
it  was  possible  to  obtain  sand,  gravel,  and  water  for  mixing  the 
concrete.  This  plan  was  adopted  because  of  the  fact  that  the 
space  on  the  hillside  suitable  for  work  was  so  constricted  that 
it  was  not  found  economical  to  excavate  and  build  a  lined 
canal — especially  as  portions  of  the  work  are  along  almost 
vertical  cliffs  and  in  places  the  canal  passes  through  tunnels. 


216  WATER  RESOURCES 

A  view  of  the  separate  pieces  of  the  canal  is  shown  in  PL 
XV.  B.  The  steel  forms  have  been  removed  from  these.  As 
soon  as  these  had  become  completely  dry,  they  were  hoisted 
and  carried  by  overhead  conveyors  and  by  short  pieces  of  con- 
struction track  to  the  point  where  they  could  be  swung  into 
place  and  the  joints  cemented  together  to  make  the  continuous 
line  shown  in  PI.  XV.  A.  The  capacity  of  this  is  300  cubic  feet 
per  second,  and  the  length  is  12  miles. 

TUNNELS.  On  steep  hillsides  it  is  often  economical  to  put 
the  canal  underground  through  a  tunnel.  Occasionally  also  the 
line  can  be  shortened  by  piercing  a  projecting  point  of  rock. 
In  consideration  of  maintenance,  the  reduced  economy  may 
justify  a  larger  increase  in  cost  in  the  building  of  a  tunnel  as 
contrasted  with  an  open  canal  or  flume  which  is  likely  to  be 
disturbed  by  rock  or  snowslides  from  the  upper  slopes.  It  is 
usually  necessary  to  line  the  tunnels  and  for  this  purpose  con- 
crete is  generally  employed.  A  view  looking  out  of  such  a  tunnel 
is  given  in  PI.  XIV.  B,  which  also  shows  the  concrete  lining  of 
the  main  canal  of  the  Grand  Valley  Project  and  the  warped 
surface  of  the  gradual  transition  from  the  tunnel  to  the  section 
of  the  canal.  In  the  work  of  the  Reclamation  Service,  a  large 
number  of  tunnels  have  been  built  for  irrigation  purposes,  the 
aggregate  length  of  these  being  157,000  feet. 

SIPHONS.  In  order  to  cross  depressions,  it  is  usual  to  carry 
the  canal  over  on  grade,  using  for  this  purpose  flumes  as  pre- 
viously described.  Occasionally,  however,  it  is  more  advanta- 
geous to  drop  the  canal  and  carry  it  in  some  form  of  pressure 
pipe  under  a  depression,  especially  if  the  latter  is  subject  to 
extraordinary  floods.  Such  condition  is  shown  in  PL  XV.  C, 
which  illustrates  the  concrete  siphon  on  the  Interstate  Canal 
from  North  Platte  River,  Wyoming-Nebraska.  This  consists 
essentially  of  a  large  concrete  box,  rectangular  in  outline,  de- 
pressed below  the  level  of  Rawhide  Creek,  a  tributary  of  North 
Platte  River.  The  canal  water  descends  into  this  inverted 
siphon,  passes  under  the  bed  of  the  creek  and  then  is  conveyed 
up  nearly  to  the  original  level  by  a  continuation  of  the  water- 
tight compartments. 

Most  of  these  siphons  are  built  during  dry  weather  by  exca- 


IRRIGATION  STRUCTURE  AND  METHODS    217 

rating  the  ground  and  then  covering  them  up  so  that  the  flood 
can  pass  over  undisturbed.  Occasionally,  however,  conditions 
are  such  that  it  is  necessary  to  tunnel  under  the  stream  as,  for 
example,  at  Yuma,  Ariz.,  where  the  main  canal  from  Colorado 
River  coming  south  on  the  California  side,  crosses  under  the 
river  to  the  Arizona  side.  The  river  channel  at  this  point  is 
quite  deep  and  is  filled  largely  with  soft  mud  which  scours  out 
in  time  of  flood.  It  was  found  to  be  advisable  to  go  to  a  depth 
of  eighty  feet  or  more  beneath  the  river  level  in  order  to  con- 
struct the  tunnel. 

CANAL  LINING.  Ordinary  irrigation  canals  and  laterals  are 
excavated  for  the  most  part  in  loose  surface  soil.  Often  this 
consists  largely  of  sand  or  gravel,  and  wherever  these  form  the 
bottom  or  sides  of  the  canal,  there  is  great  loss  of  water  by 
percolation  or  seepage.  Where  water  is  scarce,  this  loss  be- 
comes an  important  item,  moreover  if  the  canal  is  located  on  a 
sidehill  the  seeping  water  may  tend  to  cause  slides  with  result- 
ing great  damage,  due  to  the  sudden  escape  of  large  volumes 
of  water.  It  is,  therefore,  important  to  line  some  of  the  canals 
not  only  to  save  valuable  water,  but  also  to  insure  safety. 
With  improved  methods  and  reduced  cost,  the  placing  of  lining, 
particularly  of  concrete,  is  increasing.  In  the  larger  canals, 
the  concrete  may  be  made  of  six  inches  or  even  more  in  thickness. 
It  is  laid  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  used  in  the  construction 
of  concrete  roads  or  pavements.  In  smaller  canals,  the  lining 
is  frequently  much  thinner ;  if  the  soil  is  firm  it  may  be  less  than 
one  inch  in  thickness,  being  plastered  directly  upon  the  sides 
and  bottom.  In  Pis.  XII.  A,  XII.  C,  and  XIV.  B  are  shown 
portions  of  lined  canals. 

In  many  localities  where  the  irrigation  water  carries  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  sediment  this  muddy  water  may  be 
controlled  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  deposits  to  form  along  the 
sides  and  bottom  of  the  canal  effectually  sealing  up  the  smaller 
crevices  or  filling  the  interstices  between  the  grains  of  sand  or 
bits  of  gravel.  Thus  it  may  result  that  after  one  or  two  seasons 
a  canal  which  at  first  lost  a  great  part  of  the  water  becomes 
capable  of  delivering  each  year  a  larger  and  larger  proportion 
of  the  amount  received  at  the  head.  When  the  water  is  clear 


218  WATER  RESOURCES 

such  action  cannot  take  place  and  there  it  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  bring  clay  to  the  spots  where  the  greatest  seepage  occurs 
and  make  a  clay  puddle  or  lining  throughout  the  sandy  or  gravel 
portions.  In  the  canals  of  the  Minidoka  Project,  for  example, 
in  southern  Idaho,  there  appeared  to  be  at  first  a  loss  of  75 
per  cent,  only  about  25  per  cent  of  the  water  carried  being 
ultimately  delivered  to  the  irrigated  lands. 

The  country  through  which  this  canal  flows  is  quite  sandy 
and  the  water,  being  taken  from  Lake  Walcott  on  Snake  River, 
is  clear.  There  is  little  clay  in  the  vicinity  which  can  be  ob- 
tained by  ordinary  methods  and  taken  to  the  canal,  but  an 
ingenious  scheme  was  adopted  by  the  engineers  in  which  to  meet 
this  condition,  as  noted  on  page  100.  Water  was  conducted  to 
certain  deposits  not  far  away  and  a  portion  of  the  clay  washed 
out,  being  conducted  by  flumes  to  a  point,  PI.  IV.  D,  where  the 
fluid  mud  could  be  dropped  into  the  canals.  The  mud  thus 
introduced  serves  to  check  the  seepage  loss.  It  has  also  another 
and  somewhat  unforeseen  result  in  that  the  canal  itself  was 
made  smoother,  permitting  greater  velocity  for  a  given  slope, 
or  in  other  words  reducing  the  value  of  n  in  Kutter's  formula — 
in  one  case  from  0.020  to  0.016,  the  canal  having  a  capacity  of 
approximately  700  second-feet. 

The  reduction  of  seepage  loss  was  shown  not  only  by  the 
saving  of  water  but  by  the  fact  that  wells  driven  near  the  canal 
have  gradually  lowered  or  become  dry  due  to  the  cutting  off 
of  their  supply  from  the  canal.  The  distribution  of  silt  thus 
put  into  the  clear  canal  water  has  been  quite  general,  from  two 
to  five  times  as  much  being  deposited  on  the  slopes  as  on  the 
bottom.  On  the  curves,  the  deposit,  as  might  be  expected,  is 
largely  on  the  inner  slope ;  but  even  on  the  outer  slope  the  per- 
colating waters  have  carried  fine  particles  of  clay  into  the 
banks  and  have  to  this  extent  clogged  the  passage  of  water 
through  them. 

In  order  to  retain  the  silt  in  places  where  exposed  to  the  wind, 
or  where  the  velocity  is  excessive,  sagebush  covered  with  wire 
netting  has  been  used.  In  the  case  of  this  canal  approximately 
$25,000  was  expended  in  putting  silt  into  the  canal.  This 
amount,  while  apparently  large,  is  small  in  comparison  with 


IRRIGATION  STRUCTURE  AND  METHODS    219 

the  advantages  gained  in  reducing  the  amount  to  be  expended 
on  drains  to  take  away  the  excess  water.  Comparing  it  with 
the  cost  of  obtaining  water  for  the  canal,  it  may  be  said  that 
if  only  ten  cubic  feet  per  second  of  water  was  saved,  the  value 
of  this  saving  would  justify  the  expenditure  above  named. 

GATES.  To  control  the  water  there  are  required  an  almost 
infinite  number  and  variety  of  devices  from  the  simple  plank 
or  stop  log  used  by  the  farmer,  PL  XVI.  A,  to  the  elaborate 
concrete  and  steel  gates  shown  in  PL  XIV.  A.  Most  of  these 
slide  vertically  in  grooves,  but  to  meet  certain  conditions  other 
devices  are  employed,  particularly  the  circular  gate  which  can 
be  used  on  the  end  of  a  pipe  of  metal,  concrete  or  tile.  One  of 
the  latest  devices,  the  cylindrical  gate  on  the  Franklin  Canal  in 
El  Paso,  Texas,  is  illustrated  in  PL  XV.  D.  This  canal  takes 
water  from  the  Rio  Grande  a  short  distance  above  the  dam 
shown  in  PL  VIII.  D,  near  the  city  of  El  Paso,  and  carries  it 
in  a  general  way  parallel  with  the  stream  to  lands  below  the 
city.  It  has  a  capacity  of  450  second-feet  and  a  length  of 
nearly  32  miles. 

AUTOMATIC  SPILLWAY.  On  every  large  canal  there  is  likeli- 
hood of  an  extraordinary  rain  or  cloudburst  sending  water 
into  the  canal  so  rapidly  that  the  banks  may  be  overtopped. 
Great  loss  of  property  or  possibly  of  life  might  result  from  the 
cutting  of  the  canal  banks.  To  prevent  this,  various  devices 
have  been  tried,  particularly  of  gates  which  can  be  operated 
quickly  by  one  man.  It  is  not  safe,  however,  to  depend  upon 
the  man  being  on  hand  at  times  of  extraordinary  storm  or  other 
catastrophe  and  efforts  have  been  made  to  perfect  a  simple  and 
automatic  device.  One  of  these  is  so  constructed  as  to  have  a 
portion  of  the  lower  canal  bank  protected  by  concrete,  the  top 
of  this  being  placed  at  the  safe  water  height.  If  for  any  cause 
an  excess  of  water  comes  into  the  canal  tending  to  raise  the 
surface  above  the  level  of  the  concrete  wall,  it  immediately  spills 
over  into  a  side  channel  from  which  it  can  flow  away  to  the  river 
without  injury.  When  the  manager  desires  to  raise  the  water 
level  and  to  increase  the  flow  of  the  canal  temporarily,  a  row 
of  bags  filled  with  earth  or  some  similar  devices  can  be  placed 


220  WATER  RESOURCES 

on  top  of  the  concrete,  being  so  arranged  that  these  are  readily 
washed  out  if  the  water  goes  above  a  certain  altitude. 

DROPS.  Efforts  are  made  to  keep  the  canals  on  a  very  gently 
descending  grade  so  that  the  velocity  will  not  exceed  as  a  rule 
two  to  three  feet  per  second.  If  the  country  falls  off  rapidly, 
it  is  necessary  to  make  some  provision  for  letting  the  water 
down  without  increasing  the  canal  grade  and  consequent  ve- 
locity to  an  extent  to  erode  the  channel.  For  this  purpose 
many  wooden  structures  have  been  built,  but  for  permanence 
concrete  is  now  more  usually  employed. 

At  the  lower  end  of  these  drops  there  is  opportunity  for  the 
development  of  power.  The  chief  objection  to  making  expen- 
ditures for  water  wheels  and  electric  generators  at  these  points 
is  the  fact  that  the  canals  are  in  use  only  during  the  crop  season 
and  thus  do  not  furnish  power  throughout  the  year.  If,  how- 
ever, a  demand  for  the  power  can  be  found  which  is  coincident 
with  the  time  of  the  use  of  the  canals,  then  this  objection  is 
removed. 

Such  coincidence  occurs  if  the  power  can  be  employed  for 
pumping  water  for  the  irrigation  of  lands  which  cannot  obtain 
a  gravity  supply  from  the  canals.  During  the  height  of  the 
crop  season,  when  most  water  is  flowing  in  the  canal  and  most 
power  can  be  developed,  there  is  corresponding  need  of  this 
power  to  procure  additional  water.  There  is  thus  offered  to 
the  engineer  the  opportunity  of  producing  conservation  not 
only  of  the  wrater  but  in  the  employment  of  power  which  would 
otherwise  be  wrasted.  Examples  of  this  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Yakima  Valley  in  the  state  of  Washington,  where  water  in 
various  canal  drops  is  employed  in  creating  hydro-electric 
power  which,  transmitted  to  a  distance,  enables  lands  which 
otherwise  would  remain  arid  to  be  successfully  irrigated.  On 
the  Huntley  Project  in  Montana  the  drop  in  the  main  canal  is 
utilized  for  lifting  water  to  lands  above  the  level  of  the  canal. 
In  this  case  there  is  no  electric  transmission  of  power,  but  the 
pump  for  raising  a  portion  of  the  water  is  placed  on  the  upper 
end  of  the  vertical  shaft  carrying  the  water  wheel  which  is 
driven  by  the  descent  of  the  main  body  of  water. 

PUMPING.      A  relatively   small  percentage  of  the   irrigated 


IRRIGATION  STRUCTURE  AND  METHODS    221 

lands  of  the  country  is  furnished  with  a  water  supply  by 
pumping;  but  this  small  percentage  affords  many  interesting 
and  valuable  lessons  because  of  the  fact  that  with  the  high  cost 
of  obtaining  water  by  this  method,  there  is  enforced  corre- 
sponding economy  in  its  use.  Hence  are  presented  striking 
examples  of  the  excellent  results  which  may  be  obtained  by  the 
application  of  a  small  quantity  of  water  and  a  demonstration 
of  the  fact  that  it  will  be  practicable  to  greatly  extend  the  area 
irrigated  whenever  the  irrigator  using  the  gravity  supply  is  as 
careful  as  his  neighbor  who  depends  upon  the  more  expensive 
pumped  water.  In  other  words,  if  the  water  to  all  of  the  95 
to  97  per  cent  of  the  arid  lands  now  furnished  with  gravity 
supply  was  handled  with  a  skill  and  economy  comparable  to 
that  used  in  the  areas  to  which  water  is  pumped,  far  greater 
crops  could  be  raised  and  the  areas  irrigated  might  be  doubled 
or  trebled.  More  than  this,  if  in  the  future  expenditures  are 
made  for  water  storage  on  a  scale  comparable  to  those  incurred 
in  the  pumping,  there  will  be  a  great  increase  in  the  number 
as  well  as  the  cost  of  reservoirs  yet  to  be  built.  In  short,  a 
study  of  results  obtained  by  pumping  reveals  to  the  engineer 
economies  and  possibilities  of  a  vast  extension  of  hydraulic 
development. 

Pumping  has  been  resorted  to  in  localities  where  it  has  not 
been  practicable  to  bring  water  to  the  farms  by  gravity;  for 
example,  along  the  shores  of  lakes  or  the  banks  of  rivers  whose 
fall  is  too  gentle  to  permit  diversion  by  gravity.  The  cost  of 
water  per  acre  supplied  by  pumping  far  exceeds  that  of  the 
gravity  supply  and  in  fact  when  these  costs  have  been  ascer- 
tained, with  proper  allowance  for  interest  and  depreciation,  the 
figures  have  usually  exceeded  the  anticipations  of  its  most 
enthusiastic  advocates.  Roughly  stated,  the  cost  of  lifting  one 
acre-foot  of  water  one  foot  in  height  by  ordinary  small  engines 
is  about  7  cents ;  or  to  lift  this  amount  of  water  50  feet  would 
require  $3.50,  irrigating  an  acre  to  a  depth  of  one  foot.  This 
is  at  least  three  times  the  cost  of  gravity  supply.  In  the  case 
of  orchards  producing  high-priced  fruits,  it  is  possible  to  pump 
water  profitably  or  even  to  elevate  it  for  alfalfa  lands  with  a 
lift  of  from  50  to  100  feet  and  upward.  In  the  case  of  more 


222  WATER  RESOURCES 

valuable  crops,  such  as  cane  sugar  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
water  has  actually  been  raised  to  a  height  of  over  500  feet. 

With  large  economical  pumping  plants,  the  cost,  including 
depreciation  and  repairs,  may  be  reduced  as  low  as  3  cents 
per  acre-foot  raised  one  foot  or  even  less ;  but  the  margin  of 
profit  in  the  ordinary  farm  crops  is  so  small  that  the  average 
irrigator  can  rarely  afford  to  pay  the  cost  of  pumping  water 
to  a  height  exceeding,  say,  50  feet. 

In  portions  of  California  and  other  fruit-growing  localities, 
considerable  areas  of  land  are  being  irrigated  by  water  ob- 
tained from  wells.  The  supply  of  ground  water  throughout 
the  arid  region  is,  however,  quite  limited.  (See  in  this  con- 
nection pages  81  and  90.)  It  is  necessary  in  some  localities  to 
go  to  depths  of  from  100  to  300  feet  or  more  before  reaching 
moisture.  There  is  always  probability  that  the  supply  even 
at  this  depth  will  be  limited  and  that  by  constant  pumping  the 
water  level  will  be  lowered.  Such,  for  example,  has  been  the 
case  in  the  valleys  of  southern  California  where  with  rapid 
increase  in  the  number  of  wells  the  accumulated  supply  has 
been  rapidly  drawn  down,  especially  after  a  series  of  dry  years. 
Some  of  these  wells  are  so  situated  that  the  seepage  from  adja- 
cent foothills  tends  to  replenish  them. 

Where  the  supply  of  water  from  wells  is  ample,  various 
devices  have  been  employed,  such  as  windmills,  gasoline  and 
steam  engines,  and  electric  power,  for  bringing  it  to  the  surface. 
It  is  very  important  that  the  well  borings  be  continued  down 
into  and  through  the  water-bearing  sands  or  gravels,  so  as  to 
take  advantage  of  the  full  thickness  of  the  pervious  deposits. 
Perforated  pipe  is  often  driven  into  the  layers  of  coarse  gravel, 
adding  greatly  to  the  capacity  of  the  well. 

Artesian  conditions  (see  page  81)  occur  in  limited  areas  in 
nearly  every  state,  but  they  do  not  furnish  a  notable  supply 
for  irrigation,  excepting  on  the  Great  Plains  and  in  parts  of 
California.  Wherever  they  occur  the  water  has  especial  value 
on  account  of  the  convenience  incident  to  its  rising  above  the 
surface.  In  some  places,  as  the  James  River  Valley  of  South 
Dakota,  the  pressure  is  100  pounds  or  more  to  the  square  inch, 
throwing  the  water  to  a  considerable  height  and  enabling  the 


IRRIGATION  STRUCTURE  AND  METHODS    223 

wells  to  be  used  as  sources  of  power.  The  quantity  of  water 
to  be  had  from  deep  wells  is  governed  by  the  diameter  of  the 
well,  the  structure  and  thickness  of  the  water-bearing  rocks, 
and  the  pressure  sustained  by  the  water.  With  relatively  dense 
rocks  a  slight  head  of  water  will  throw  only  a  feeble  stream,  but 
from  thick  layers  of  open  gravel  or  sand  rock  large  volumes  are 
delivered.  It  frequently  occurs  that  a  four-inch  pipe  will  de- 
liver all  of  the  water  which  can  reach  this  point,  and  increasing 
the  diameter  of  the  well  will  not  alter  the  flow. 

An  important  source  of  power  for  pumping  water  is  the  wind. 
Over  the  broad  valleys  and  plains  of  the  arid  region,  the  wind 
movement  is  almost  continuous  for  days  and  weeks.  It  is  a 
comparatively  simple  and  inexpensive  operation  to  sink  a  well 
into  the  water-bearing  strata  and  erect  a  windmill,  as  illus- 
trated in  PL  IV.  A,  attaching  this  to  a  suitable  pump.  A  wind- 
mill once  erected  on  the  plains  is  operated  day  and  night  by  the 
wind,  bringing  to  the  surface  a  small  but  continuous  supply  of 
water.  This  small  stream  if  turned  out  on  the  soil  would  flow 
a  short  distance,  then  disappear  into  the  thirsty  ground,  so 
that  irrigation  directly  from  a  windmill  is  usually  impracti- 
cable. 

To  overcome  this  difficulty,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
provide  small  storage  reservoirs  or  tanks,  built  of  earth  (as 
shown  in  PL  IV.  A  or  better  in  PL  XIII.  A),  wood,  or  metal, 
to  hold  the  water  until  it  has  accumulated  to  a  volume  sufficient 
to  permit  a  stream  of  considerable  size  to  be  taken  out  for  irri- 
gation. Such  a  stream,  flowing  rapidly  over  the  surface,  will 
penetrate  to  a  distance  and  cover  an  area  much  greater  than 
is  possible  with  the  small  flow  delivered  by  an  ordinary  pump. 
One  disadvantage  connected  with  the  use  of  windmills  is  that 
most  of  them  are  constructed  to  operate  only  in  moderate  winds. 
As  the  strength  of  the  wind  increases,  the  wheel  begins  to  re- 
volve, increasing  in  efficiency  until  the  velocity  of  the  wind  is 
about  eight  or  ten  miles  an  hour;  At  greater  speed  the  mills 
are  usually  so  constructed  that  the  efficiency  decreases  rapidly 
as  the  wind  becomes  more  powerful.  When  it  approaches  a 
gale,  the  mill  stops  completely. 

Although  there   are   in   use   large   numbers   of   windmills   in 


224  WATER  RESOURCES 

pumping  water  for  irrigation  of  small  tracts,  the  aggregate 
area  is  small  compared  with  the  extent  of  lands  watered  by 
more  powerful  devices,  such  as  those  made  possible  by  the 
development  of  hydro-electric  power.  Within  the  past  decade 
much  attention  has  been  given  to  this  matter,  particularly  in 
connection  with  the  use  of  power  developed  for  municipal  and 
manufacturing  purposes  and  which  is  available  for  farm  use  at 
seasons  or  times  of  day  when  not  needed  for  the  principal  in- 
dustry. It  is  possible  at  such  times  to  obtain  power  at  low 
rates  and  to  utilize  it  in  pumping  water  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE 

The  object  of  providing  water  by  storage  in  connection  with 
irrigation  is,  of  course,  to  have  it  available  whenever  needed. 
Such  need  is  continuous  throughout  the  irrigation  season ;  it  is 
vital  for  crop  success  that  the  canal  be  operated  and  maintained 
by  an  adequate  force  of  skilled  men  employed  for  the  purpose, 
and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  have  the  water  at  hand  as  needed. 
The  cost  of  operation  and  maintenance  is  dependent  largely 
upon  local  conditions  and  upon  the  way  in  which  these  have 
been  met  in  the  original  construction,  notably  with  reference  to 
permanence. 

In  planning  and  constructing  any  works  for  irrigation  and 
drainage,  the  first  requisite,  as  above  noted,  is  that  when  built 
these  may  be  operated  and  maintained  at  reasonable  cost.  While 
temporary  expedients  may  be  necessary  at  times,  yet  full  con- 
sideration should  be  given  to  the  future  difficulties  involved ;  the 
plans  when  under  consideration  should  be  prepared  or  passed 
upon  by  men  who  have  had  large  experience  in  the  operation  and 
maintenance  as  distinguished  from  the  more  purely  engineering 
or  construction  side.  All  these  works  are  built  for  indefinite  use 
and  are  to  be  maintained  presumably  as  long  as  civilization 
endures.  The  development  of  the  resources  in  the  country  and 
the  location  of  industries  are  intimately  connected  with  the  irri- 
gation or  drainage  works  and  any  error  made  in  these  may  be 
indefinitely  perpetuated  with  subsequent  loss  to  all  concerned. 

In  the  case  of  drainage  works,  the  operation  is  practically 
automatic  and  the  maintenance  should  be  extremelv  small,  con- 
sisting in  seeing  to  it  that  the  drains  are  not  clogged  and  that 
the  inlets  and  outlets  are  properly  protected.  In  the  case  of 
irrigation,  however,  where  water  should  be  measured  and  deliv- 


226  WATER  RESOURCES 

ered  at  short  intervals  through  a  great  part  of  the  year,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  carefully  organized  force  of  experienced 
men  giving  attention  to  all  of  the  details  of  the  control  and 
diversion  of  water. 

The  operation  details  consist  largely  in  making  deliveries  of 
water  to  each  farm  as  needed.  The  older  canals  were  so 
arranged  as  to  furnish  a  continuous  flow  of  water,  but  this  had 
the  ill  effect  of  encouraging  large  waste  and  of  ruining  much  of 
the  agricultural  land. 

Under  modern  methods  provisions  are  made  by  which  each 
farmer  notifies  the  water  master  either  by  telephone  or  card 
as  to  the  time  and  amount  of  water  needed.  From  such  notices 
a  schedule  is  prepared  so  that  the  water  may  be  turned  into 
the  laterals  and  delivered  to  the  farms  at  a  time  determined  upon 
in  advance.  The  keeping  of  the  records  of  the  amount  actually 
received  into  the  main  canal,  distributed  to  the  laterals  and 
turned  out  to  each  farm  is  a  matter  of  first  importance. 

The  maintenance  operations  "consist  in  keeping  the  canal  in 
good  condition.  The  work  is  usually  done  by  the  same  men 
who  are  employed  in  operation  details — the  maintenance  work 
being  performed  after  the  close  of  the  irrigation  season  or  at 
times  when  the  canals  are  not  in  use.  Among  the  problems  oi 
maintenance  are  those  of  keeping  the  banks  clean  and  free  from 
weeds.  Some  of  these,  like  the  so-called  "tumble  weed,"  when 
dry  are  blown  into  the  canal  and  obstruct  the  flow,  occasionally 
causing  bad  breaks  unless  carefully  guarded  against.  An  inter- 
esting method  of  cleaning  canal  banks  has  been  tried  in  the  Salt 
River  Valley  in  Arizona  where  sheep  have  been  utilized,  these 
browsing  along  the  banks  and  eating  down  the  herbage.  A 
view  illustrating  the  action  of  the  sheep  is  shown  in  PL  IX.  A, 
where  a  band  is  grazing  in  the  vicinity  of  Huntley,  Mont. 

MEASUREMENT  OF  IRRIGATION  WATER.  In  the  older  and 
smaller  systems  where  the  manager  has  grown  up  with  the  work, 
it  is  possible  for  some  one  man  or  group  of  men  to  carry  in 
mind  all  of  the  details  and  to  apportion  the  water  fairly  well  to 
the  relatively  few  water  users,  but  in  the  modern  large  system 
built  to  supply  water  to  hundreds  of  farms  this  easy-going  way 
is  no  longer  applicable.  The  condition  may  be  compared  to 


OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE  227 

that  of  the  country  merchant  who,  knowing  his  people,  can 
apportion  among  his  customers  a  pile  of  coal  or  of  wood  roughly 
by  his  eye  and  with  reasonable  satisfaction.  When,  however, 
he  must  delegate  these  details  to  others,  and  he  can  no  longer 
know  of  each  transaction,  to  avoid  difficulty  and  bankruptcy, 
he  must  maintain  a  thorough  system  of  weights  and  measures 
and  make  record  of  each  transaction. 

So  it  is  with  the  measurement  of  irrigation  water.  The  older 
managers  naturally  resented  the  introduction  of  troublesome 
details  of  measurement  and  asserted  that  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses their  methods  are  best.  A  study  of  these,  however,  shows 
that  there  has  been  great  inequality  in  irrigating  streams  sup- 
posed to  be  of  the  same  volume,  and  enormous  wraste  of  water 
resulting  in  ruin  to  large  areas  of  land.  The  only  way  in  which 
such  injurious  conditions  can  be  prevented  is  to  keep  a  record 
of  the  water  available  in  the  storage  reservoir,  also  the  quantity 
received  in  the  main  canal  and  divided  to  the  principal  branches, 
and  more  than  this  the  time  and"  amount  of  water  turned  to  each 
farmer.  Having  these  details,  it  is  possible  day  by  day  to 
ascertain  where  the  water  goes  and  the  quantity  of  waste,  and  to 
check  up  against  the  acreage  the  beneficial  use  of  the  water. 
When  once  a  proper  system  has  been  installed,  the  advantages 
as  compared  with  the  costs  are  so  great  that  no  one  seriously 
advocates  a  return  to  the  old  haphazard  method. 

The  measurement  of  the  water  is  one  of  the  most  important 
functions  of  the  operating  force.  PL  XVI.  A  illustrates  one  of 
the  laterals  with  the  small  wooden  turnout  gates  at  the  head  of 
each  farm  lateral.  The  water  master  or  his  assistant  visits  each 
of  these  gates  daily,  sets  them  to  receive  a  certain  amount  of 
water,  makes  records  of  the  fact,  and  if  necessary  locks  the 
gates  to  prevent  unauthorized  changes.1 

HEADS  OF  WATER.  The  amount  of  water  which  any  one  man 
can  economically  apply  to  his  fields  varies  according  to  the  skill 
of  the  farmer,  the  soil,  the  crops,  and  especially  to  the  care  with 

i  Adams,  Frank,  "Delivery  of  Water  to  Irrigators,"  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Office  Experiment  Stations,  Bulletin  229,  1910. 

"Some  Measuring  Devices  Used  in  the  Delivery  of  Irrigation  Water," 
University  of  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  247,  1915. 


228  WATER  RESOURCES 

which  the  surface  has  been  leveled.  The  tendency  has  been  to 
progress  from  the  use  of  relatively  small  streams  or  heads  of 
one  cubic  foot  per  second  up  to  three  or  four  times  this  amount 
or  even  to  ten  or  more  second-feet,  an  amount  which  the  older 
irrigators  would  regard  as  absolutely  impossible  of  control. 
With  larger  heads  there  result  quicker  irrigation  and  the  appli- 
cation of  a  proportionally  less  amount  of  water  for  the  area  to 
be  covered;  also  larger  crop  yields  per  unit  of  water  applied. 

APPLICATION  OF  WATER.  The  methods  of  irrigation  prac- 
ticed in  various  parts  of  the  United  States  differ  according  to 
the  climatic  conditions  and  soil,  and  especially  as  to  the  early 
habits  or  training  of  the  irrigators.  While  the  methods  of  con- 
serving and  conveying  water  have  improved  under  the  stimulus 
of  modern  invention,  there  has  been  little  progress  in  the  devel- 
opment and  use  by  the  farmer  of  well-considered  ways  or  eco- 
nomics in  putting  water  on  the  fields.  The  various  methods 
employed  can  be  classified  in  general  under  one  of  three  ways — 
flooding,  furrows,  or  subirrigation. 

FLOODING.  The  irrigator  in  flooding  his  fields  turns  the 
water  from  a  lateral  or  distributing  irrigation  ditch  over  the 
nearly  level  land  and  completely  submerges  it.  Perfectly  level 
fields  are,  however,  comparatively  rare,  and  the  first  step  in 
primitive  agriculture  by  irrigation  has  been  to  build  a  low  ridge 
around  two  or  three  sides  of  a  slightly  sloping  field,  so  that  the 
water  is  held  in  ponds.  These  low  banks  are  commonly  known 
as  levees  or  checks.  In  construction  they  are  frequently  laid 
out  at  right  angles  or  more  often  following  the  contour  of  the 
ground,  dividing  the  land  into  a  number  of  compartments. 
Water  is  turned  from  the  irrigation  ditch  into  the  highest  of 
these  compartments,  as  shown  in  PI.  XIV.  C;  when  the  ground 
is  flooded,  the  bank  of  the  lower  side  is  cut  or  a  small  sluiceway 
opened,  and  the  water  passes  into  the  next  field,  and  so  on,  until 
each  in  turn  is  watered.  So-called  "wild-flooding"  is  also  prac- 
ticed in  some  localities,  the  water  being  diverted  in  such  a  way 
as  to  flow  in  a  series  of  small  rills  or  a  thin  sheet  over  the  gently 
sloping  area.  Considerable  skill  is  required  on  the  part  of  the 
irrigator  to  avoid  swamping  one  part  and  leaving  dry  another 
portion. 


OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE  229 

FURROWS.  Irrigation  in  checks  has  gradually  decreased  in 
relative  importance,  owing  to  the  expense  of  leveling  and  levee- 
ing the  ground.  With  experience  the  irrigator  has  become  able 
to  apply  water  to  crops  which  are  cultivated  in  furrows  with- 
out resorting  to  such  expensive  means.  The  furrows  are  plowed 
in  such  a  direction  that  the  water  when  turned  into  them  from 
the  lateral  ditches  will  flow  freely  down  them  without  washing 
away  the  soil.  When  the  water  has  completely  filled  the  fur- 
rows, PL  XVIII.  A,  and  has  reached  the  lowest  points,  the 
little  streams  are  cut  off  and  turned  into  another  set.  The  meth- 
ods of  doing  this  differ ;  sometimes  the  irrigator  simply  cuts  the 
bank  of  the  distributing  ditch  with  a  shovel  and  then  closes  the 
opening  after  sufficient  water  has  escaped,  as  illustrated  in  PL 
XIV.  C.  A  more  systematic  method  is  employed  in  California. 
Water  is  carried  to  the  upper  end  of  the  furrows  in  a  small  box 
flume  with  openings  about  one  inch  square  in  the  side.  These 
openings  are  closed  by  shutters  and  a  number  can  be  opened  at 
once,  permitting  a  certain  quantity  of  water  to  escape  into  each 
furrow. 

The  slope  given  the  furrows  determines  to  a  certain  extent 
the  amount  of  water  received  by  the  soil.  If  the  fall  is  very 
gentle,  the  water  moves  slowly  and  a  large  portion  is  absorbed 
while  the  furrow  is  being  filled.  If  steep,  the  water  quickly 
passes  to  a  lower  end  and  the  ground  does  not  absorb  so  much. 
When  the  entire  field  has  been  watered,  the  furrows  are  usually 
plowed  out  and  a  thin  layer  of  the  soil  stirred  to  make  an  open, 
porous  covering  or  mulch,  as  in  PL  XIV.  D,  preventing  exces- 
sive evaporation  and  allowing  the  air  to  enter  the  ground. 
Without  such  cultivation  a  hard  crust  may  be  formed.  The 
loosening  of  this  crust  breaks  the  capillary  connection  with  the 
moisture  beneath  and  thus  lessens  the  loss  of  water. 

For  irrigating  small  grain,  the  fields,  brought  to  a  uniform 
surface,  are  thoroughly  cultivated,  and  after  the  grain  has 
been  sown,  parallel  lines  are  made  similar  to  furrows,  but 
smaller  and  nearer  together.  These  are  laid  out  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  desired  slope,  so  that  the  water  can  flow  down  the 
marks  through  a  cornfield.  The  rapidly  growing  grain  shades 
the  surface  and  prevents  the  formation  of  crust,  rendering  sub- 


230  WATER  RESOURCES 

sequent  cultivation  unnecessary.  In  order  to  cause  the  water 
to  spread  from  the  lateral  ditches  into  the  furrows  through  the 
ground,  use  is  made  of  a  canvas  dam,  PI.  XIV.  C,  or  a  tappoon 
— a  small  sheet  of  metal  of  such  shape  as  to  fit  across  the  ditch. 
This  can  be  forced  into  the  soft  earth,  making  a  small  dam 
and  causing  the  water  to  back  up  and  overflow  the  field  of  grain. 

Furrow-irrigation  is  usually  employed  in  watering  trees  and 
vines,  as  shown  in  PI.  XIV.  D.  In  some  localities,  however, 
basin  or  pool  irrigation  is  practiced.  Where  water  is  especially 
scanty  and  correspondingly  high  priced,  the  supply  is  con- 
ducted in  cement-lined  ditches  and  by  wooden  flumes,  and  is 
then  turned  out  into  the  furrows  plowed  around  or  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  trees  and  vines.  The  water  issuing  from  small 
apertures  in  the  side  of  the  wooden  box  falls  into  the  furrows 
and  is  immediately  conducted  to  the  vicinity  of  the  growing 
plants.  Care  is  usually  taken  that  the  water  shall  not  actually 
touch  the  tree  trunks,  as  in  PI.  XIV.  D,  and  that  it  reaches  the 
extremities  of  the  roots  to  encourage  these  to  spread  outward. 
After  the  water  has  traversed  the  furrows  to  the  lower  end  of 
the  orchard,  the  supply  is  cut  off,  and  the  ground  is  tilled  as 
soon  as  the  surface  dries  sufficiently. 

SUBIRRIGATION.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  conduct  the 
water  beneath  the  surface  immediately  to  the  roots  of  the  trees, 
thus  preventing  waste  by  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Few  devices  have  been  successful,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  roots  of  the  trees  rapidly  seek  and  enter  the  openings 
from  which  the  water  issues,  or,  surrounding  the  pipe  by  a  dense 
network,  cut  off  the  supply.  Porous  clay  tiling  has  been  laid 
through  orchards,  and  also  iron  pipes  so  perforated  as  to  fur- 
nish a  supply  of  water  along  their  length.  In  some  orchards 
where  subsurface  irrigation  has  been  unsuccessful  because  of 
roots  stopping  up  minute  openings  beneath  the  surface,  the 
system  has  been  reconstructed  and  water  has  been  brought  to 
the  surface  at  or  near  each  tree  by  means  of  small  hydrants. 

The  term  subirrigation  is  occasionally  applied  to  conditions 
occurring  in  nature  where  water  percolates  freely  beneath  the 
ground  for  a  considerable  distance,  sufficiently  near  the  surface 
to  supply  the  need  of  crops.  Where  the  subsoil  transmits  water 


OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE  231 

freely,  irrigation  ditches  may  subirrigate  large  tracts  of  coun- 
try without  rendering  them  marshy.  Thus  farms  may  obtain  an 
ample  supply  of  water  from  ditches  half  a  mile  or  more  away 
without  the  necessity  of  distributing  small  streams  over  the 
surface.  In  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  California,  vineyards  in 
certain  localities  are  thus  maintained  in  good  condition,  al- 
though water  has  not  been  visibly  applied  for  many  years. 

ROTATION  OF  FLOW.  In  the  pioneer  days  of  irrigation  in  the 
United  States  it  was  customary  for  the  farmers  to  receive  a 
small,  steady  flow  of  water — one  which  could  be  turned  to  a 
field,  the  gate  set,  and  the  farmer  proceed  about  his  business  or 
at  night  go  to  bed  and  in  the  morning  see  what  had  happened. 
If  everything  had  continued  as  anticipated,  the  water  in  time 
would  reach  the  end  of  the  field  and  while  the  upper  portions 
were  overirrigated,  the  lower  part  would  have  a  small  supply. 
Often,  however,  especially  during  the  night,  the  stream  became 
obstructed  or  a  wind  storm  diverted  it.  As  a  result  there  would 
be  a  pond  in  one  place  and  dry  spots  in  another.  With  the 
increasing  need  of  more  water  for  additional  lands  and  the  de- 
mand for  economy,  there  came  about  a  realization  of  the  fact 
that  a  larger  area  could  be  irrigated  by  using  the  water  more 
carefully,  especially  by  giving  personal  attention  to  the  flow  and 
utilizing  larger  streams  for  shorter  times.  There  thus  arose 
the  custom  of  two  or  three  neighbors  combining  in  one  head  or 
stream  the  quantity  of  water  to  which  each  was  entitled  and 
using  this  in  succession,  shutting  off  the  flow  when  not  needed 
and  turning  the  supply  over  to  another  neighbor,  and  so  on, 
applying  the  water  at  intervals  of  a  few  days  and  doing  all 
of  the  watering  of  one  field  in  a  few  hours. 

One  of  the  disadvantages  of  this  rotation  is  that  the  water 
must  be  taken  and  used  irrespective  of  the  time  of  day  or  night 
and  if  an  irrigator's  turn  comes  in  the  evening,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary for  him  to  work  most  of  the  night  by  the  light  of  a  lantern, 
to  get  the  water  over  the  field.  Some,  skilled  in  details,  prefer 
the  night  irrigation,  as  they  think  that  the  water  goes  farther 
and  better.  With  everything  prepared  they  can  work  through 
the  cool  night  with  greater  comfort.  Others  naturally  object 
and  the  introduction  of  rotation  in  countries  where  there  has 


232  WATER  RESOURCES 

been  a  steady  flow  is  strenuously  opposed  until  the  majority  are 
convinced  of  the  economy  and  efficiency  of  this  method. 

DUTY  OF  WATER.  The  amount  of  land  which  can  be  irrigated 
with  a  given  quantity  of  water,  or  the  relation  which  these  bear 
to  each  other,  is  commonly  expressed  by  the  term  duty  of  water, 
as  noted  on  page  195.  The  investigation  of  this  relation  is  one 
offering  peculiar  difficulties,  as  there  discussed.  Many  studies 
have  been  made  and  the  results  embodied  in  various  scientific 
reports  and  semi-popular  works  on  the  subject.1 

These  reports  show  in  general  that  more  water  is  used  than  is 
necessary  for  the  production  of  the  best  crops  and  that  when 
greater  economy  can  be  attained  the  area  of  irrigated  land  can 
be  increased.  This  is  demonstrated  by  the  results  obtained 
when  dependence  is  placed  upon  pumped  water,  as  indicated  on 
page  221.  In  Wyoming,  and  in  several  other  states,  the  required 
rate  of  delivery  fixed  by  law  is  1  second- foot  to  70  acres ;  in 
Idaho  50,  in  Oregon  80,  in  Nevada  100  acres,  but  in  Colorado 
and  some  other  states  the  determination  of  area  is  left  to  the 
courts.  For  convenience  in  connection  with  new  projects  the 
assumption  of  1  second-foot  to  100  acres  is  generally  made. 

The  duty  of  the  water  is  said  to  be  low  when  only  a  small  area 
of  land  is  irrigated  by  a  considerable  stream,  for  example,  if 
1  cubic  foot  per  second  is  used  on  70  acres.  It  is  high  if  this 
quantity  irrigates  160  acres  or  more.  When  we  consider  water 
not  as  flowing  in  a  stream,  but  as  held  in  a  reservoir,  we  speak 
of  low  duty  of  water  in  that  3  acre-feet  of  water  has  been 
applied  during  an  irrigation  season  to  a  single  acre,  or  in  other 
words  an  acre  has  received  an  aggregate  depth  of  3  feet.  The 
duty  was  high  if  the  acre  was  satisfactorily  irrigated  by  the 

1  Harding,  S.  T.,  "Operation  and  Maintenance  of  Irrigation  Systems," 
McGraw-Hill  Co.,  New  York,  1917,  271  pages,  illustrated. 

Newell,  F.  H.,  "Irrigation  in  the  United  States,"  T.  Y.  Crowell  &  Co., 
New  York,  1906,  433  pages,  illustrated. 

Newell,  F.  H.,  "Irrigation  Management,"  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  306 
pages,  illustrated. 

Teele,  R.  P.,  "Irrigation  in  the  United  States,"  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1915, 
253  pages,  illustrated. 

Widtsoe,  John  A.,  "Principles  of  Irrigation  Practice,"  Macmillan  Co., 
1915,  496  pages,  illustrated. 


Plate  XV.  A. 
Cement  flume,  Tieton  Canal,  Washington. 


Plate  XV.  B. 

Casting  portions  of  reinforced  concrete  cement  flume,  Tieton  Canal, 

Washington. 


Plate  XV.  C. 

Siphon  conveying  waters  of  Interstate  Canal  under  Rawhide  Creek,  North 
Platte  Project,  Nebraska. 


Plate  XV.  D. 
Cylindrical  gates  in  Franklin  Canal,  El  Paso,  Texas. 


OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE  233 

application  of  a  quantity  of  water  which  would  have  amounted 
to  1.5  feet  in  depth  or  1%  acre- feet. 

The  theoretical  duty  of  water  is  far  higher  than  that  actually 
obtained.  There  is  need  for  the  production  of  a  pound  of  dry 
matter,  for  forage  or  other  crops,  from  300  to  1,000  pounds  of 
water,  as  noted  on  page  75.  This  would  mean  a  few  inches  in 
depth  over  the  entire  surface.  To  bring  these  few  inches  to  the 
plant,  however,  requires  the  use  of  several  times  this  amount  of 
wrater  in  transporting  the  necessary  quantity,  because  of  the  loss 
in  transit  by  seepage  into  the  soil,  by  evaporation  and  in  other 
ways.  Farmers  have  applied  as  high  as  5,  6,  or  even  10  feet  in 
depth  on  sandy  soils  and  yet  have  complained  of  not  having 
enough.  Others  assert  that  they  have  raised  good  crops  on  an 
aggregate  of  one  foot  of  water  in  depth  during  the  crop  season. 

The  old  rough-and-ready  rule  was  an  inch  to  the  acre,  mean- 
ing a  miner's  inch,  or  the  fortieth  or  fiftieth  part  of  a  cubic  foot 
per  second.  Later  an  inch  to  two  acres  became  the  more  com- 
mon expression,  meaning  that  a  cubic  foot  per  second  or  40  or 
50  miner's  inches,  flowing  through  the  irrigation  season  of,  say, 
4  months  or  120  days,  would  irrigate  80  to  100  acres,  giving 
an  aggregate  depth  of  2.4  to  3  feet. 

PRODUCTS.  The  products  obtained  by  the  use  of  stored  and 
other  waters  procured  for  irrigation  are  dependent  largely  upon 
climatic  conditions.  In  a  country  of  modern  temperature  and 
where  there  is  almost  continual  daily  sunshine,  as  in  the  arid 
region,  the  applying  of  water  at  the  right  time  enables  the 
farmer  to  control  crop  production  to  a  large  degree.  In  the 
warmer  regions,  as  in  Arizona  and  parts  of  California,  crop 
follows  crop  in  rapid  succession. 

The  most  valuable  is  the  fruit  crop,  but  the  area  devoted  to 
fruit  is  relatively  small.  Of  greater  importance  is  the  hay  and 
forage  crop,  consisting  principally  of  alfalfa,  Pis.  II.  B,  XIII. 
D,  XVI.  B.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  arid  region  this  can 
be  cut  two  or  three  times  a  year  and  in  the  southern  part  five 
or  six  or  oftener.  It  not  only  is  a  valuable  forage  plant,  but 
enriches  the  ground  through  the  peculiar  action  of  the  nitrify- 
ing organism  on  its  roots. 

Alfalfa  forms  nearly  half  of  the  irrigated  crop  acreage  and 


234  WATER  RESOURCES 

yields  over  a  third  of  the  crop  value.  Once  established,  or  a 
good  "stand"  secured,  it  continues  for  several  years  to  furnish 
annual  yields  without  reseeding.  Its  roots,  penetrating  deeply, 
open  up  the  hard  soil,  and  if  turned  under  it  affords  one  of  the 
best  fertilizers  for  the  succeeding  crops.  The  alfalfa  hay  is 
preferred  for  most  of  the  farm  animals.1 

The  matter  of  most  concern  to  the  farmer  is  not  so  much  his 
ability  to  raise  alfalfa,  by  the  use  of  water  provided  by  storage 
or  other  means,  but  rather  his  chief  problem  lies  in  successfully 
disposing  of  the  alfalfa  at  a  price  such  as  will  yield  him  a  proper 
return  for  his  labor.  When  the  country  was  relatively  new  and 
unsettled,  and  when  there  was  a  demand  for  forage  far  exceed- 
ing the  supply,  such  a  question  did  not  arise,  but  the  moment 
that  development  had  proceeded  to  a  point  where  the  alfalfa 
must  seek  an  outside  market,  then  the  price  in  each  locality  fell 
so  low  as  often  to  be  below  the  cost  of  production. 

Under  the  first-named  condition,  the  amount  received  and 
demanded  for  alfalfa  per  ton  was  the  purchase  price  in  outside 
markets  plus  the  freight  or  cost  of  bringing  the  alfalfa  into  the 
place  where  needed  by  the  cattle  owners  or  contractors  on  the 
new  work.  When  the  settlers  reached  such  a  degree  of  success 
that  they  produced  more  than  enough  hay  to  supply  the  local 
demand,  then  the  cost  of  freight  was  subtracted  instead  of  being 
added  to  the  price  in  the  outside  market.  For  instance,  if 
alfalfa  could  be  purchased  for  $10  per  ton  at  Salt  Lake  City 
and  the  freight  rates  to  a  new  project  such  as  that  at  Minidoka, 
Ida.,  were  $4  per  ton,  then  the  contractors  on  the  Minidoka 
Project  were  compelled  to  pay  $14  per  ton.  As  soon  as  the 
local  alfalfa  fields  produced  a  quantity  in  excess  of  the  amount 
needed  by  the  contractors  and  some  of  the  alfalfa  must  of  neces- 
sity be  shipped  to  Salt  Lake  City  for  disposal,  then  the  local 
price  was  that  prevailing  in  Salt  Lake  City,  or  $10,  less  the 
freight  charge  of  $4  per  ton,  netting  the  farmer  only  $6  per 
ton  or  even  less  if  freight  facilities  were  not  available. 

This  simple  fact  was  not  early  appreciated  and  hence  arose 
great  disappointment  to  the  settlers  who  had  founded  their 

i  Beadle,  J.  B.,  "Progress  of  Reclamation  on  Arid  Lands  in  the  Western 
United  States,"  Smithsonian  Report,  1915,  pp.  467-488. 


OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE  235 

hopes  on  the  continuance  of  high  prices  due  to  pioneer  condi- 
tions. They  at  once  began  to  look  for  a  remedy  and  with  the 
assistance  of  employees  of  the  Reclamation  Service  and  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  studied  the  practicability  of  reduc- 
ing the  shipping  charges,  notably  by  condensing  the  alfalfa  into 
more  easily  transportable  forms  or,  as  it  has  been  stated,  "pack- 
ing the  hay  into  the  skin  of  a  hog,"  or  of  converting  it  into 
butter. 

A  considerable  amount  of  capital  and  much  time  is  required 
to  secure  good  dairy  cows  or  to  get  cattle  or  sheep  to  feed. 
In  the  hog  business,  however,  a  farmer  can  get  well  started  in 
two  years  and  with  a  small  investment.  It  is  stated  that  horses 
and  cattle  increase  annually  60  to  80  per  cent,  sheep  a  little 
more  than  100  per  cent,  while  hogs  should  increase  600  per  cent. 
Moreover,  it  takes  less  feed  to  produce  a  pound  of  pork  than 
any  other  kind  of  meat  produced  on  the  farm.  Experiments 
have  been  made  on  various  reclamation  projects,  showing  in  one 
case,  considered  fairly  typical,  that  in  two  years'  experience 
with  alfalfa  pasture,  an  average  annual  return  of  over  $45  per 
acre  was  secured.  With  the  addition  of  a  little  corn,  these  re- 
turns were  increased  to  from  $70  to  over  twice  as  much  per 
acre.  Other  experiments  show  that  in  the  yield  of  certain 
pastured  plats  the  hay  consumed  was  sold  in  the  form  of  pork 
at  a  value  of  over  $25  per  ton.1  These  matters,  although  appar- 
ently outside  the  field  of  investigation  by  the  engineer,  are  of 
prime  importance  in  preparing  plans  and  in  weighing  the  eco- 
nomics of  various  projects  of  water  control  and  development. 

The  cereals — principally  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  barley — 
raised  under  irrigation  come  far  below  the  forage  crops ;  and 
next  to  these  in  order  are  vegetables,  orchard  fruits  (PI.  XIV. 
D),  and  small  fruit.  In  California  the  orchard  fruits  surpass 
the  forage  crops  in  value.  The  large  production  of  hay  and 
forage  under  irrigation  illustrates  the  fact  that  in  these  states 
irrigation  is,  to  a  large  extent,  an  adjunct  of  stock  raising.  The 
production  of  cereals  under  irrigation  is  relatively  small. 

i  Holden,  James  A.,  "Experience  in  the  Disposal  of  Irrigated  Crops 
Through  the  Use  of  Hogs,"  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bulletin  488,  February  26,  1917. 


236  WATER  RESOURCES 

The  total  value  of  all  the  cereals  produced  under  irrigation 
in  the  United  States  is  less  than  that  of  those  produced  in 
almost  any  one  of  the  humid  states  of  the  East.  In  many 
localities  the  irrigation  of  cereals  and  staple  crops  has  been 
brought  about  by  local  conditions,  such  as  difficulty  of  trans- 
portation and  consequent  heavy  cost  of  importation.  The  irri- 
gated cereals  in  such  localities  are  raised  almost  wholly  for  local 
consumption,  and  do  not  enter  the  markets  of  the  world.  Corn 
is  now  raised  with  considerable  success  under  irrigation.  The 
failures  which  first  occurred  on  account  of  carelessness  and 
the  unintelligent  use  of  water  and  from  attempting  to  grow 
varieties  not  adapted  to  the  locality  are  being  corrected  as 
knowledge  is  gained  from  experience. 

For  many  years  it  has  been  the  current  popular  belief  that 
the  crops  produced  by  the  irrigators  far  exceed  in  value  per 
acre  those  produced  by  the  dry  farmer.  Theoretically  this 
should  be  a  fact  because  with  proper  water  conservation  by 
storage  it  is  possible  to  regulate  the  supply  of  moisture  and 
with  ample  sunlight  to  bring  about  ideal  conditions.  Many  indi- 
vidual examples  can  be  cited  of  wonderful  results.  Taking  such 
instances  there  seems  to  be  no  question  but  that  irrigation  must 
win  in  any  comparison.  There  have  been,  until  recently,  no 
reliable  figures  sustaining  the  assumptions  made,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  Reclamation  Service  began  to  obtain  crop  statistics 
that  it  was  realized  that  the  average  crop  production  under 
irrigation  was  far  less  than  usually  believed. 

The  annual  estimates  prepared  by  the  Reclamation  Service 
show  a  steady  decline  during  several  years  in  succession  of  the 
average  value  per  acre  cropped.  This  is  presumably  due  to 
the  fact  that  each  year  more  complete  figures  were  obtained. 
In  1916,  however,  for  the  first  time  the  average  showed  a  gain 
over  the  preceding  years,  and  while  from  about  1909  until  1915 
the  returns  per  acre  seemed  to  decrease,  the  later  figures  have 
showed  a  gain.  This  may  be  explained  in  part  by  the  fact  that 
the  early  figures  related  largely  to  lands  including  old  developed 
areas  in  the  Salt  River,  Arizona,  Uncompahgre  Valley,  Colo- 
rado, and  similar  projects.  Each  year  a  larger  and  larger 
acreage  of  raw  land  was  added,  tending  to  step  down  the  returns. 


OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE  237 

These  raw  lands,  after  a  few  years  in  cultivation,  have  now 
become  highly  productive. 

ALKALI  AND  DRAINAGE.  Where  water  is  scarce  and  must  be 
handled  carefully,  efforts  are  made  to  secure  economy,  but  when 
a  large  supply  has  been  made  available  by  storage,  the  farmer 
is  inclined  to  use  it  lavishly.  Upwards  of  15  per  cent,  or  even 
more,  of  the  irrigated  lands  formerly  cultivated,  have  been 
injured  by  an  excess  of  water.  This  has  not  only  converted 
these  lands  into  swamps  but  has  brought  to  the  surface  a  crust 
of  earthly  salts  of  various  compositions  included  under  the  term 
of  alkali,  as  shown  in  PI.  XVI.  C. 

The  most  effective  way  of  removing  alkali  is  to  hold  the 
ground  water  well  below  the  surface  by  means  of  deep  drains 
and  thus  permit  excess  soil  waters  to  move  downward.  The 
water  in  descending  in  the  soil  dissolves  the  salt  on  and  near  the 
surface  and  a  portion  of  it  is  carried  off  in  solution  in  the  drain- 
age water.  Deep  drains,  especially  where  they  cut  porous 
strata,  are  effective  in  lowering  the  ground  water  and  removing 
alkali  at  long  distances  from  them.  On  many  of  the  United 
States  Reclamation  Service  projects  deep  drains  at  average 
intervals  of  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  mile  apart  have  been 
found  effective.  Investigations  indicate  that  troubles  caused 
by  alkali  yield  to  careful  treatment,  and  even  badly  alkaline 
land,  when  properly  drained  and  then  irrigated,  can  be  made 
suitable  for  cultivation.  Large  areas  of  alkali  land  in  the  West 
may  be  reclaimed  at  a  cost  below  the  actual  increase  in  the  value 
of  the  land.  It  is  believed  that  the  time  will  soon  come  when 
drainage  will  be  as  common  in  the  irrigated  districts  as  are  the 
tile-drained  fields  of  the  Middle  West. 

All  irrigation  works  must  be  accompanied  by  the  building  of 
adequate  wasteways  and  drains.  Throughout  a  great  part  of 
the  United  States,  outside  of  as  well  as  within  the  arid  region, 
are  thousands  of  acres  of  land  which  are  either  partly  sub- 
merged, especially  during  the  flood  season,  or  contain  an  amount 
of  water  so  large  as  to  render  their  cultivation  impracticable. 
Drainage  must  be  provided  for  these  lands,  not  only  to  remove 
the  surface  water,  but  to  decrease  the  percentage  of  water  in 
the  soil  itself.  There  are  thus  necessary  two  distinct  but  closely 


238  WATER  RESOURCES 

related  kinds  of  construction.  First,  the  surface  drains  or 
wasteways,  and  second,  subsurface  or  deep  covered  drains. 

Surface  ditches  form  by  far  the  greater  part  of  all  drainage 
works.  They  are  usually  broad,  shallow  depressions  designed 
to  carry  away  as  quickly  as  possible  the  excess  of  rain  or  flood 
water  and  to  discharge  this  into  the  natural  streams.  By  re- 
lieving the  surface  of  this  burden,  it  is  often  possible  for  the  soil 
to  quickly  dry  out  and  reach  a  tillable  condition.  In  the  case 
of  some  soils,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  deeper  outlets  which  will 
actually  draw  down  the  water  in  the  ground  and  permit  the  air 
to  enter  the  interstices.  In  other  words,  the  drains  must  be 
put  down  sufficiently  deep  to  permit  the  escape  of  water  from 
the  upper  6  or  8  feet.  What  is  desired  is  to  reduce  the  per- 
centage of  saturation  down  to,  say,  12  or  15  per  cent. 

The  building  of  irrigation  works  should  be  accompanied  by 
the  construction  of  drains  in  the  same  way  that  the  building  of 
a  city  waterworks  is  accompanied  by  a  sewage  system.  It  is 
not  always  practicable  to  anticipate  just  where  the  drains  will 
be  needed.  Some  of  the  soils,  apparently  tight,  will  be  found  to 
transmit  water  freely,  and  others,  which  on  examination  appear 
to  be  porous,  may  be  found  to  retain  the  water.  It  thus  results 
that  after  irrigation  works  are  built  the  seepage  waters  appear 
in  unexpected  places;  the  drainage  system  must  be  laid  out  in 
accordance  with  observations  made  as  to  the  behavior  of  the 
underground  water. 

The  main  drainage,  open  ditches,  located  usually  in  the  nat- 
ural depressions,  are  built  with  gently  sloping  sides.  The  farm 
drains  leading  to  these  may  consist  of  tile  buried  in  the  ground 
to  a  depth  sufficient  to  keep  the  water  table  well  beneath  the 
surface.  The  construction  of  these  drains  through  the  wet 
lands  necessitates  the  use  of  machinery  so  arranged  that  it  can 
be  operated  in  water-soaked  soils.  The  most  successful  is  some 
form  of  drag-line  excavator,  such  as  that  shown  in  PL  I.  C,  which 
operates  a  bucket  on  the  end  of  a  line  in  such  a  way  as  to  take 
out  the  material  whether  wet  or  dry. 

In  many  places  drainage  works  are  employed  as  an  adjunct 
to  the  irrigation  canal.  On  benchlands  or  gently  sloping  hill- 


OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE  239 

sides  the  water  which  escapes  from  one  man's  farm  is  caught  by 
the  lower  laterals  and  used  by  his  neighbors  below,  and  there  is 
none  left  to  stagnate,  the  surplus  from  the  upper  cultivated 
lands  being  of  value  in  watering  the  lower  meadows.  There  are 
cases,  however,  where  the  question  of  disposing  of  the  water  is 
as  important  as  that  of  obtaining  it.  These  are  on  the  nearly 
level  lands,  where  the  subsoil  has  been  filled  to  saturation  by  the 
water  which  has  no  opportunity  to  escape,  and  where  expensive 
works  are  required  in  order  to  redeem  the  lower  lands  for 
agricultural  purposes. 

There  is  probably  no  one  engineering  operation  that  seems 
more  simple  than  that  of  location  of  drains.  Looking  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  the  ordinary  observer  will  infer  that  the 
drains  should  follow  certain  depressions.  Acting  under  such 
impulses,  thousands  of  dollars  have  been  wasted  in  building 
drains  which  when  constructed  were  found  not  to  remove  the 
excess  water  as  anticipated.  The  reason  is  that  the  under- 
ground conditions  are  not  usually  revealed  by  the  contour  of 
the  surface  and  that  the  movement  of  the  water  through  the  soil 
is  controlled  by  conditions  which  are  not  at  once  apparent. 
These  may  be  determined  by  a  carefully  planned  series  of  test 
pits  or  bore  holes,  so  located  as  to  ascertain  the  character  of  the 
subsoil  and  slope  of  the  water  table. 

As  an  example  may  be  noted  the  Shoshone  Project  in  Wyo- 
ming, in  which  the  soil,  of  4  to  6  feet  in  thickness,  is  underlaid  by 
gravel.  The  general  surface  has  a  fall  of  about  20  feet  to  the 
mile.  Apparently  there  could  be  no  danger  of  swamping  such  an 
area  as  water  would  flow  down  the  surface  or  into  the  gravels. 
It  was  assumed  that  the  gravel  could  deliver  any  excess  water 
to  the  deeply  cut  natural  drainage  lines.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  swamps  did  develop  on  these  relatively  steep  slopes  and 
drains  built  according  to  surface  indications  did  not  relieve  the 
situation.  Carefully  conducted  investigations  showed  that  there 
were  certain  bands  of  gravel  less  pervious  than  others  and  that 
only  when  the  drains  were  so  located  that  these  bands  were  cut 
could  the  accumulated  water  be  discharged  through  the  barrier 
and  the  swampy  conditions  relieved.  It  was  by  thorough  re- 
search that  these  unexpected  conditions  were  found  to  exist  in 


240  WATER  RESOURCES 

material  which  ordinarily  is  supposed  to  be  readily  traversed 
by  water. 

Before  undertaking  any  considerable  drainage  enterprise,  a 
map  should  be  prepared  showing  not  only  the  surface  condi- 
tions, but  also  the  depth  to  hardpan  or  to  the  water  table  and 
other  facts  such  as  may  be  ascertained  by  field  examinations  of 
the  area.  On  the  basis  of  this  information,  it  is  possible  to  pre- 
pare plans  which  may  enable  large  economies,  as  against  the 
frequently  haphazard  system  of  simply  digging  the  drains  and 
then  trying  out  their  efficiency.  The  distance  between  drains, 
their  size,  slope,  and  other  conditions,  must  be  worked  out  in 
accordance  with  the  full  information  obtained  by  field  exami- 
nations and  by  the  analogies  presented  by  successful  work  else- 
where. 

The  development  of  drainage  is  proceeding  rapidly  as  larger 
experience  has  been  obtained  and  more  complete  information  is 
had  concerning  the  essential  details.  Well-planned  investiga- 
tions are  needed,  however,  into  many  of  the  details  of  the  move- 
ment of  water  underground  through  the  influence  of  gravity, 
capillarity,  and  other  forces,  as  modified  by  soil  texture  and 
composition. 


Plate  XVI.  A. 
Measuring  water  to  farm  laterals.     Uncompahgre  Project,  Colorado. 


Plate  XVI.  B. 
Stacking  alfalfa  hay,  Garden  City  Project,  Kansas. 


Plate  XVI.  C. 

Alfalfa  field  injured  by  alkali  due  to  excessive  irrigation,  Shoshone  Project, 

Wyoming. 


Plate  XVI.  D. 
Apple   orchard,   North   Yakima,  Washington. 


CHAPTER  XV 

TRANSPORTATION  OF  WASTE  THE 
THIRD  USE  OF  WATER 

The  assertion  that  the  use  of  water,  in  the  disposal  of 
sewage,  and  of  industrial  wastes  in  general,  is  next  in  impor- 
tance to  food  production,  comes  as  a  shock  to  most  persons  who 
have  not  carefully  thought  about  these  matters.  The  employ- 
ment of  watercourses  in  this  connection  is  more  often  regarded 
as  an  abuse  than  as  a  use,  and  the  natural  impulse  is  to  de- 
nounce the  pollution  of  streams  as  an  outrage  on  the  public. 
In  a  rapidly  developing  country  where  population  is  increasing 
and  industries  are  multiplying,  there  human  and  industrial 
wastes  quickly  accumulate  to  a  point  where  health  and  life  itself 
are  threatened.  Even  in  primitive  times  or  among  Indian  tribes, 
village  sites  or  even  small  towns  were  abandoned  because  of  the 
nuisance  or  infection  bred  from  such  accumulations.  Under 
such  conditions  either  the  rivers  must  be  used  to  wash  away  the 
polluting  substances  or  drastic  action  taken  to  limit  industry 
and  settlement. 

In  most  industrial  operations  and  in  nearly  all  sanitary  appli- 
ances, water  in  large  quantities  is  used.  It  is  taken  out  of  the 
general  circulatory  system,  employed  for  a  short  period,  and 
then  returned,  carrying  with  it  the  substances  for  which  we 
have  no  further  need  and  concerning  which  our  chief  anxiety  is 
to  get  them  out  of  sight  and  smell  as  quickly  as  possible,  even 
though  they  may  contain  fertilizing  material  or  substance  from 
which  valuable  by-products  may  be  derived. 

Thus,  in  the  present  stage  of  development  of  civilization  and 
of  population,  water  has  become  the  principal  agency  for  carry- 
ing away  the  things  we  no  longer  require.  Whether  we  like  it 
or  not,  we  must  recognize  this  condition  and  the  fact  that  in 


242  WATER  RESOURCES 

innumerable  processes  water  is  and  will  be  employed  in  larger 
and  larger  volumes  for  washing  away  the  things  we  do  not  want 
and  which  if  not  disposed  of  become  nuisances. 

Our  immediate  concern  is  not  so  much  that  of  preventing 
the  use  of  water  as  of  determining  the  extent  to  which,  when 
once  thus  used,  it  can  or  should  be  returned  to  the  natural 
stream  channels.  It  is  whether  we  should  permit  the  foul  water 
as  it  escapes  from  sewers  or  manufacturing  establishments  to 
go  directly  into  the  brooks  and  creeks  or  whether,  before  being 
thus  turned  loose,  it  can  or  should  be  deprived  of  its  load  of 
deleterious  matter.  In  short,  because  of  the  long-continued  and 
tacit  recognition  of  an  existing  custom  sanctioned  by  law  and 
habit,  the  present  questions  are  not  those  of  prohibition  of  use 
but  of  regulation  of  an  abuse.  The  right  of  use  must  be  clearly 
defined  and  the  limits  of  abuse  equally  well  set. 

These  limits  to  which  human  and  industrial  wastes  may  be 
discharged  into  a  stream  are  by  no  means  uniform  nor  suscep- 
tible of  accurate  definition.  It  is  necessary  in  each  case  to  con- 
sider the  surrounding  conditions,  to  make  careful  investigations, 
conduct  researches  and  balance  the  benefits  as  far  as  possible 
against  the  injuries  caused;  the  persons  or  communities  suffer- 
ing injury  to  be  recompensed  by  those  who  are  benefited. 

It  is  easy  to  imagine  localities  where  unrestricted  dumping  of 
waste  is  of  no  consequence,  simply  because  the  amount  thus 
deposited  is  infinitesimal  compared  to  the  vast  volume  and  nat- 
urally foul  condition  of  river  water.  For  example,  one  or  two 
small  factories  or  settlements  along  the  muddy  Missouri  can- 
not produce  any  injury  possible  of  detection.  On  the  other 
extreme,  the  small  creeks  formerly  filled  with  clear,  mountain 
water  may  be  quickly  defiled  by  the  waste  from  a  crowded  manu- 
facturing town  and  become  a  menace  to  the  people  living  below. 

The  question  then  is  as  to  whether  the  benefits  to  the  com- 
munity or  to  the  public  in  general  of  the  former  pure  water — 
perhaps  unutilized — were  greater  than  those  now  conferred  by 
the  manufacturing  village.  Do  the  net  profits  of  the  industry 
justify  the  destruction  of  natural  values?  If  so,  should  these 
profits  be  used  in  part  in  repairing  or  in  preventing  injury?  It 
is  easily  conceivable  that  in  most,  if  not  all,  instances,  the  abuse 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  WASTE  243 

of  water  may  be  prevented  at  a  cost  which  is  less  than  the  advan- 
tage which  results  from  neglect.  The  answer  to  these  questions 
can  be  had  only  after  impartial  study  of  the  facts  and  careful 
weighing  of  the  evidence. 

The  balancing  of  benefits  and  injury  is  often  complicated  by 
conditions  which  cannot  be  readily  taken  into  account.  These 
are  the  intangible  vested  rights  or  traditional  attitude  of  the 
people  or  communities  where  use  and  abuses  have  grown  up 
slowly  side  by  side  and  the  public  has  become  accustomed  to 
these.  When  people  in  general  cannot  imagine  any  other  con- 
ditions than  those  which  exist,  there  is  little  possibility  of  arous- 
ing sufficient  interest  to  check  an  abuse.  For  instance,  a  small 
mill  which  develops  gradually  into  a  large  manufacturing  estab- 
lishment begins  at  first  to  discharge  its  refuse  into  the  stream, 
and  without  any  perceptible  injury.  As  it  grows,  the  houses  of 
workmen  are  crowded  in  the  vicinity,  the  processes  of  manu- 
facture are  gradually  changed,  and  more  and  more  noxious  sub- 
stances are  thrown  into  or  along  the  stream,  already  partly 
polluted.  At  no  time  is  there  a  conspicuous  change  from  con- 
ditions which  have  existed  a  few  months  before.  Nor  is  there 
an  inciting  cause  for  anyone  to  make  effective  complaint  until 
the  conditions  become  intolerable,  forcing  the  public  to  appre- 
ciate that  new  and  unbearable  conditions  have  developed. 

In  the  meantime,  certain  vested  rights  have  attached,  sustain- 
ing the  contention  that  stream  pollution  is  in  the  natural  order 
of  events:  the  persons  injured  have  slept  on  their  rights  or  by 
acquiescence  have  allowed  them  to  diminish  to  a  point  where  it 
is  easy  for  the  manufacturer  to  demonstrate  that  his  profits  and 
the  gain  to  the  community  far  exceed  the  dubious  loss  to  others. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  there  are  localities  and  conditions 
where  the  transporting  of  waste  products  has  attained  sufficient 
importance  to  justify  large  expenditures  by  the  public  along 
the  line  of  water  conservation,  especially  when  undertaken  in 
connection  with  other  uses  of  the  water.  For  example,  in  pre- 
paring estimates  of  the  cost  of  production  of  power  or  of  water 
storage  for  municipal  and  other  purposes,  there  may  be  recog- 
nized among  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  such  expenditure 
the  disposal  of  sewage.  Because  of  such  gain,  additional  outlay 


244  WATER  RESOURCES 

may  be  justified  or  a  plan  approved  which  otherwise  might  seem 
inexpedient. 

This  is  notably  the  case  where,  with  rapidly  increasing  density 
of  population,  the  question  of  domestic  and  city  water  is  becom- 
ing a  more  and  more  intricate  problem.  Each  settlement  along 
a  river  from  the  time  of  the  building  of  its  first  house,  usually 
has  derived  its  necessary  water  supply  from  the  stream  and,  as 
the  number  of  houses  increased,  sewers  have  been  built  emptying 
below  town.  The  diluted  sewage  has  continued  to  flow  down  to 
the  next  settlement  below  and  there  been  used  until  after  a  lapse 
of  some  years  the  water  has  become  obnoxious  or  the  death  rate 
increased. 

Little  thought  is  usually  given  to  these  conditions  until  they 
result  in  an  epidemic — with  large  loss  of  life.  Customary  incon- 
veniences or  slowly  increasing  death  rate  do  not  arouse  people 
to  action.  The  first  impulse  which  follows  the  recognition  of  the 
bad  condition  is  to  go  to  the  other  extreme,  to  demand  that  all 
sewage  be  excluded  from  the  streams.  This  is  practically  impos- 
sible, as  the  water  which  is  used  by  municipalities  or  employed  in 
manufacturing  establishments  must  sooner  or  later  return  to  the 
natural  drainage  channels.  Before  being  returned,  however,  it 
is  possible  to  bring  the  water  back  to  a  fair  degree  of  purity. 
The  cost  of  so  doing  is  the  governing  factor. 

The  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  water  which  has 
once  been  used  is  largely  a  matter  of  dilution.1  After  the  visible 
impurities  have  been  disposed  of  and  the  bacteriological  con- 
tents reduced  as  far  as  practicable,  the  next  question  is  to  secure 
as  great  a  degree  of  dilution  as  possible.  To  do  this  there  must 
be  available  during  the  dry  seasons  an  adequate  amount  of 
water  and  while  under  ordinary  conditions  it  would  not  pay  to 
store  water  simply  for  dilution  of  waste,  yet  in  connection  with 
power  development  or  other  purpose  this  may  be  brought  about 
and  enable  the  solution  of  a  difficult  problem. 

Water  is  the  universal  carrier  and  solvent,  and  of  necessity 
must  be  largely  employed  in  removing  many  noxious  materials. 

i  But  not  in  Miles  and  activated  sludge  processes ;  aeration  is  necessary 
in  the  Miles  process;  activated  sludge  sewage  will  support  fish  at  end  of 
treatment.  These  treatments  usually  require  concentration. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  WASTE  245 

During  the  process  of  transportation  of  organic  matter  in  open 
stream  channels  there  is  usually  set  up  more  or  less  chemical 
and  biological  action  which  tends  to  eliminate  the  harmful 
organisms.  If  the  foul  water  is  well  diluted  and  is  exposed  to 
sunlight  and  to  air  in  its  course  downstream,  there  is  a  gradual 
return  to  normal  conditions. 

While  it  may  be  impracticable  to  preserve  the  streams  of  the 
country  in  their  original  purity,  yet  research  indicates  that  it 
is  possible  to  so  act  that  they  may  continue  to  perform  varied 
and  useful  functions,  bringing  needed  water  to  many  communi- 
ties and  taking  away  the  waste  material,  provided  that  in  so 
doing  they  are  not  overloaded.  The  proper  adjustment  is  a 
matter  which  must  be  considered  in  each  case.  It  demands  the 
skill  of  the  engineer  in  planning  and  devising  works  of  conserva- 
tion to  furnish  a  regular  supply  and  the  experience  of  the  sani- 
tary and  biological  experts  to  see  to  it  that  the  highest  practi- 
cable degree  of  purity  is  attained  in  anything  discharged  into 
the  watercourses.  Filtration  of  waters  before  use  and  again 
after  use  and  before  release  into  the  natural  channels,  together 
with  a  steady  flow  in  the  latter — sufficient  to  secure  full  dilu- 
tion— is  to  be  sought.1 

RELATIVE  VALUES.2  The  gain  to  individuals  or  to  corpora- 
tions through  the  relatively  easy  way  of  disposing  of  sewage 
and  waste  by  discharging  it  into  rivers  has  been  accompanied  by 
losses  to  communities  or  injury  to  the  public  welfare.  The 
effects  of  the  structures,  such  as  dams  across  the  rivers,  the 

1  Hansen,    Paul,    "Control    of    Stream    Pollution,"    Illinois    Academy    of 
Science,  1913. 

Hoad,  W.  C.,  "The  Michigan  Water  and  Sewage  Law  and  the  Grand 
Rapids  Stream  Pollution  Decision,"  Engineering  Bulletin  No.  4,  Michigan 
State  Board  of  Health. 

Leighton.  Marshall  O.,  "Pollution  of  Illinois  and  Mississippi  River  by 
Chicago  Sewage,"  U.  S.  G.  S.  Water  Supply  Paper  No.  194,  1907. 

Legg,  F.  G.,  "The  Work  of  the  International  Joint  Commission  on  the 
Pollution  of  Boundary  Waters,"  Michigan  Engineering  Society  Proceedings, 
1915,  p.  79. 

2  The  remainder  of  the  chapter  is  a  slight  modification  of  a  manuscript 
by  Victor  E.  Shelford,  biologist  in  charge  of  Research  Laboratories,  Illi- 
nois Natural  History  Survey,  and  assistant  professor  of  Zoology,  University 
of  Illinois. 


246  WATER  RESOURCES 

drainage  of  extensive  marshes  and  the  sewage  discharged  into 
the  streams  have  disturbed  the  delicate  adjustment  of  life  con- 
ditions of  plants  or  animals.  The  actions  and  reactions  are 
usually  complex  and  the  ultimate  net  balance  of  benefit  or  injury 
may  not  be  apparent  until  after  careful  research. 

People  in  general  are  apt  to  see  only  those  things  which  are 
brought  prominently  to  their  attention,  disregarding  other  mat- 
ters as  of  little  or  no  significance;  thus  the  natural  resources 
which  have  been  lost  or  diminished  in  value  to  secure  an  imme- 
diate gain  are  usually  not  given  great  weight.  To  illustrate  the 
contrasting  attitude  of  those  who  view  the  same  question  from 
different  standpoints,  the  following  instances  may  be  given.  A 
manufacturer,  when  confronted  by  law  which  will  ultimately 
compel  his  factory  to  stop  polluting  a  stream,  exclaims : 

"What !  Would  you  destroy  our  great  industries  because  of 
a  few  fish,  for  the  sake  of  the  cattle  of  a  few  farmers  or  the 
health  of  a  few  people?  If  people  want  fish,  let  them  go  to  sea 
or  somewhere  else  and  get  them.  If  they  don't  like  the  foul 
water,  let  them  move  to  a  greater  distance  from  the  factory 
where  the  water  is  better.  If  they  and  their  cattle  can't  drink 
the  water,  let  them  drill  wells  for  themselves."1 

On  the  other  hand  is  the  attitude  of  the  extreme  conserva- 
tionist who  denounces  public  indifference  in  the  disposal  of 
sewage,  and  says :  "There  is  little  blacker  or  more  nearly  crimi- 
nal in  the  history  of  the  country  or  an  exhibition  of  greater 
disregard  for  the  rights  and  health  of  the  people  than  the  pollu- 
tion of  the  streams  by  manufacturing  and  other  industrial  inter- 
ests. It  is  harder  to  repair  the  damage  they  have  done,  than 
all  the  acts  of  careless  fishermen.  To  those  who  know  the  facts, 
have  seen  the  dire  results,  and  have  the  work  of  rehabilitation  in 
hand,  the  faults  of  Judas  Iscariot  and  of  Benedict  Arnold  are 
more  to  be  condoned  and  of  less  harm  to  the  people  than  the 
ruin  of  the  fisheries  and  the  water  supply  for  domestic  pur- 
poses."1 

i  Meehan,  W.  E.,  "The  Battle  for  the  Fishes,"  Canadian  Fisherman,  1917, 
4:275-279. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  WASTE  247 

In  the  words  of  an  aquatic  culture  advocate :  "A  fish  cultural 
experiment  station  is  what  is  now  urgently  needed;  an  institu- 
tion equipped  for  water  culture,  and  charged  with  the  duty  of 
carrying  out  a  well-planned  line  of  experiments,  bearing  on  its 
economic  problems.  This  is  needed  to  supplement  the  hatch- 
eries and  to  bring  their  work  to  fruition."1  On  the  contrary,  we 
have  from  a  cannery  operator :  "This  nonsense  about  fish  cul- 
ture makes  me  tired.  What  I  want  to  know  is  how  to  make  every 
dollar  invested  in  fisheries  pay  a  dollar  and  ten  cents.  When 
we  have  canned  the  last  salmon  we  will  can  something  else." 

The  conservationist  says  of  Niagara,  "The  falls  in  their  full 
glory  belong  solely  to  the  nation  and  to  posterity."  While  the 
engineers  respond,  "It's  a  shame  to  let  all  that  power  go  to 
waste." 

Who  is  right?  To  a  certain  extent  each  is — but  in  each  case 
the  special  interest  fails  to  recognize  the  rights  and  interests 
of  the  other  side  in  making  his  own  calculations.  The  present 
unsatisfactory  condition  of  our  aquatic  resources  is  largely  due 
to  the  intolerant  advocacy  of  this  or  that,  of  "pork,"  profits, 
industrial  expansion,  sport,  or  economy  carried  to  penurious- 
ness.  Modern  legislation  for  the  protection  of  fishes  has  often 
been  less  effective  than  that  of  300  years  ago.  Proposals  for 
its  complete  reorganization  have  scarcely  gotten  a  hearing. 

In  1606  an  act  passed  by  James  VI  of  Scotland  forbade  the 
pollution  of  lochs  and  running  streams  because  it  was  "hurtful 
to  all  fishes  bred  therein."2  The  punishments  for  violations 
were  severe.  Later  by  312  years  we  are  just  confronted  with 
a  problem  of  substituting  fish  for  beef,  pork,  and  mutton  and 
find  our  laws  no  better.  With  the  development  of  modern  indus- 
tries and  sewerage  systems  the  bathing  and  recreation  grounds 
have  been  destroyed  and  fisheries  greatly  injured  or  destroyed. 
Some  fisheries  had  been  depleted  already  as  a  result  of  the  use 
of  "improved"  catching  devices  and  the  absence  of  protective 
measures  such  as  existed  in  some  places  eight  hundred  years 
ago. 

1  Needham,  J.  G.,  and  Lloyd,  J.  T.,  "Life  of  Inland  Waters,"  Ithaca, 
1916. 

2  Day,  F.,  "British  and  Irish  Salmonids,"  London,  1887. 


248  WATER  RESOURCES 

In  Scotland,  about  the  year  1220,  it  was  ordained  that  from 
Saturday  night  to  Monday  morning  it  should  be  obligatory  to 
leave  a  free  passage  for  salmon  in  all  the  various  rivers.1  Al- 
most seven  hundred  years  later  a  similar  law  was  enacted  in 
certain  of  our  Pacific  states,  but  the  time  is  shorter,  being  from 
Saturday  night  to  Sunday  night.  The  absence  of  such  laws  in 
New  England  a  century  ago  has  caused  infinite  damage  to  the 
salmon  and  shad  industries. 

FISHERIES.  The  destruction  of  fisheries  by  using  the  streams 
to  transport  waste  is  the  first  and  most  obvious  injury,  but  they 
make  up  only  a  small  part  of  the  losses.  There  are  other  more 
important  aquatic,  biological  values  as  noted  on  page  274. 
It  has  been  argued  that  the  fisheries  of  one  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive rivers  are  not  worth  as  much  as  the  products  of  the 
smallest  industry  which  is  throwing  wastes  into  the  upper 
course  of  this  river.  This  argument  carries  much  weight ;  it 
is,  however,  faulty.  First  of  all,  economists  have  been  predict- 
ing a  shortage  of  food;  furthermore  the  values  used  are  the 
values  to  the  fishermen,  not  to  the  public.  The  Alaska  salmon 
canning  industry,  taking  only  the  salmon  canned,  shows2  that 
about  one-third  of  the  employees  and  one-third  of  the  capital 
are  devoted  to  fishing,  while  the  value  of  the  fish  to  the  fisher- 
men is  about  one- third  of  the  value  of  the  canned  product  to 
the  canneries.  Salmon  fishing  is  more  expensive  than  many 
other  types.  Fish  should  be  compared  with  raw  materials  and 
not  with  the  products  of  factories  on  which  much  labor  has 
been  expended.  Our  food  supply  should  be  increased,  not  de- 
creased to  bring  profit  to  a  few  owners  of  manufacturing 
industries. 

RECREATIONAL  VALUES.  Besides  the  biological  values,  there 
are  the  recreation  and  aesthetic  values.  They  must  be  con- 
sidered in  any  attempt  to  balance  the  gains  and  losses.  There 
are  two  types  of  recreation  which  have  to  be  taken  into  account. 
One  is  the  camping,  shooting,  and  fishing,  another  the  wading, 
rowing,  and  afternoon  and  Sunday  outings  for  children  and 

1  Day,  F.,  "British  and  Irish  Salmonids,"  London,  1887. 

2  Evermann,  B.  W.,  "Alaska  Fisheries  and  Fur  Industry  in  1913,"  1913 
Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Fisheries,  app.  11:1-139. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  WASTE  249 

those  who  must  take  advantage  of  things  near  at  hand.  These 
two  uses  of  waters  and  water  margins  overlap  only  to  a  small 
degree.  The  value  of  a  stream  and  its  margins  for  its  sports- 
men can  be  ascertained  through  suitable  investigation.  For 
example,  the  Fox  River1  in  Illinois  is  about  100  miles  long  and 
its  valley  contains  a  population  of  234,000.  The  banks  are 
dotted  with  cottages  and  there  are  some  clubhouses.  It  was 
estimated  that  there  are  over  6,000  boats  of  all  kinds  on  the 
river.  The  capital  invested  in  these  cottages,  clubhouses,  and 
boats  is  the  capitalization;  the  interest  on  this,  the  salaries  of 
caretakers  and  the  value  to  local  merchants  is  the  annual  recre- 
ation value,  but  what  it  is  has  never  been  determined.  Such 
activities  tend  to  disappear  from  badly  polluted  streams. 

For  the  general  welfare  of  its  citizens  every  large  city  pro- 
vides parks  with  lagoons  for  rowing,  bathing  beaches,  swimming 
pools,  and  in  some  cases  forest  preserves  on  the  outskirts. 
Chicago2  is  a  good  city  from  which  to  make  estimates,  for  it 
has  all  these  things  within  its  limits  or  under  its  immediate 
influence,  further  the  Fox  River  is  valuable  for  comparison 
with  the  upper  Illinois  and  Des  Plaines  rivers  because  of  the 
nearness  of  both  to  the  city.  Chicago's  park  properties  cost 
over  $56,000,000.  The  interest  on  this  sum  and  cost  of  mainte- 
nance amounts  to  nearly  $2.60  per  capita  annually  exclusive 
of  lighting.  The  forest  preserves3  will  probably  cost  nearly 
twenty  million  when  completed  and  this  will  add  another  dollar 
to  the  annual  per  capita  outlay.  This  city  also  spends  seven 
cents  per  capita  for  outdoor  bathing  facilities.  The  parks 
contain  lagoons  which  provide  rowing  and  a  limited  amount  of 
angling.  They  correspond  quite  closely  to  the  conditions 
afforded  by  a  river  and  its  immediate  margins  for  people  living 
close  at  hand. 

CHICAGO  SEWAGE.  Chicago  "treats"  its  sewage  by  dilution 
with  water  drawn  from  Lake  Michigan  and  adjacent  waterways 

1  McCurdy,  G.  E.,  "Report  of  Survey  and  Proposed  Improvement  of  the 
Fox  River,"  State  of  Illinois  Rivers  and  Lakes  Commission,  195. 

2  United  States  Bureau  of  Census,  General  statistics  of  cities,  1915. 

s  Reinberg,  P.,  and  others,  "The  Forest  Preserves  of  Cook  County," 
Chicago,  1918. 


250  WATER  RESOURCES 

through  the  South  branch  of  the  Chicago  River  and  a  canal 
which  receives  other  streams  and  finally  ends  in  the  Des  Plaines 
River,  which  is  one  of  the  upper  courses  of  the  Illinois.  There 
are  strong  evidences  of  pollution  more  than  a  hundred  miles 
below  Chicago.  Fishes  have  been  wiped  out,  and  sportsmen's 
activities  reduced  to  a  minimum.  About  250,000  people  living 
in  this  part  of  the  valley  and  area  immediately  adjacent  are 
affected  by  the  conditions  which  the  sewage  produces  in  the 
river.  It  is  not  possible  to  put  a  value  on  the  loss  they  sustain. 
"For  over  a  hundred  miles  from  Chicago,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  valley  seem  to  have  relinquished  the  most  valuable  rights  of 
riparian  owners.  The  water  is  not  fit  to  drink,  nor  wash  in, 
nor  to  water  stock  in,  nor  for  any  other  domestic  and  industrial 
uses  of  a  normal  river.  Fish  die  in  it;  the  thought  of  swimming 
in  it  is  repugnant  to  the  senses ;  boating  far  from  being  a  pleas- 
ant and  healthful  diversion  can  be  enjoyed  only  by  the  hardy. 
The  stream  flows  with  the  majestic  sweep  of  all  great  rivers  and 
the  banks  are  overhung  with  rich  luxuriant  foliage ;  but  the 
water  is  discolored,  malodorous,  poisonous.  Fine  black  organic 
sewage  mud  covers  the  bottom  and  deposits  on  the  shores  when 
the  river  overflows  its  banks."1  From  the  loss  of  nearly  all  use 
of  the  river  for  recreation,  angling,  swimming,  camping,  taking 
merely  the  $2.60  Chicago  spends  annually  at  the  present  time, 
exclusive  of  the  forest  preserves  as  a  basis,  we  find  that  the 
250,000  people  of  the  valley  may  lose  $650,000  per  year  on  this 
score  alone.  It  may,  of  course,  be  argued  that  they  would  not 
use  the  river  if  it  were  clean,  that  tributaries  supply  necessary 
recreation  grounds,  that  half  of  the  people  live  in  towns  which 
supply  these  things  in  parks,  that  they  would  pollute  the  river 
themselves.  Further,  one  might  find  that  they  are  quite  resigned 
to  conditions  because  they  "cannot  be  remedied" — a  sophistry  of 
those  who  wish  to  continue  the  present  system.  Only  careful 
investigation  can  determine  what  their  loss  is.  However,  there 
are  aesthetic  and  moral  values  to  be  considered.  Furthermore, 
the  annual  loss  to  the  inhabitants  due  to  the  lack  of  visiting 

i  Soper,  G.  A.,  Watson,  J.  D.,  and  Martin,  A.  J.,  "A  Report  on  the 
Disposal  of  Sewage  and  Protection  of  Water  Supply  of  Chicago,  Illinois," 
The  Chicago  Real  Estate  Board,  1915. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  WASTE  251 

sportsmen,  noted  above  for  the  Fox  River,  and  the  loss  due  to 
hindrance  of  the  general  development  of  the  valley  because  of  all 
the  disadvantages  and  the  nuisances  which  the  sewage  causes,  the 
destruction  of  cattle  water,  dangers  to  public  health,  all  have  to 
be  taken  into  account.  The  loss  of  fish  lies  chiefly  in  angling 
losses  at  present,  but  the  sewage  is  rapidly  encroaching  on  com- 
mercial fisheries  further  down.  In  addition  there  is  a  loss  of  an 
almost  annual  crop  of  ice,  or  ice  which  is  dangerous  to  public 
health  is  harvested. 

This  situation  can  be  relieved  by  treatment  of  Chicago  sew- 
*age.  A  recovery  and  treatment  plant  has  been  estimated1  to 
cost  Chicago  $3,800,000  for  50  million  gallons  of  sewage  or 
$38,000,000  to  care  for  the  city's  entire  discharge  counted  at 
500,000,000  gallons  per  day  at  a  cost  of  over  $8,000,000  for 
annual  running  expenses  with  recovered  products  worth  upwards 
of  $3,000,000,  leaving  more  than  $5,000,000  annual  expenses. 
These  figures  based  on  packing-town  sewage  are  perhaps  larger 
than  for  an  average. 

According  to  figures  by  Winslow  and  Mohlman,2  who  worked 
on  New  Haven  sewage,  the  cost  for  Chicago  on  the  basis  of  the 
average  of  their  two  stations  when  treated  by  the  Miles  process, 
would  be  $3,300,000  for  a  year  without  recovery  products  or 
about  $1,500,000  with  sale  of  recovery  products  deducted. 
The  figures  of  Weston  show  an  actual  profit  for  his  samples  of 
Boston  sewage.  In  other  words,  if  Chicago  spent  as  much  on 
cleaning  up  its  back  yard  as  it  does  on  beautifying  its  front 
yard,  it  would  not  be  making  a  sewer  out  of  a  once  beautiful 
valley.  The  estimated  economies  in  government  under  a  plan 
proposed  by  the  Cities'  Efficiency  and  Economy  Commission 
would  almost  build  a  fifty-million-gallon  plant  every  year,  and 
the  operating  expenses  would  increase  taxation  about  6  per  cent. 

1  Wisner,  G.  M.,  "Report  on  Sewage  Disposal,"  The  Chicago   Sanitary 
District,  Chicago,  1911. 

Hill,  C.  D.,  "The  Sewage  Disposal  Problem  in  Chicago,"  Am.  Jour.  Pub. 
Health,  8:833-837,  1918. 

Pearse,  L.,  "Activated  Sludge  and  Treatment  of  Packing-Town  Wastes," 
Am.  Jour.  Pub.  Health,  8:47-55,  1918. 

2  Winslow,  C.-E.  A.,  and  Mohlman,  F.  W.,  "Acid  Treatment  of  Sewage," 
Municipal  Journal,  45:280-282;  297-299;  321-322,  1918. 


252  WATER  RESOURCES 

Counting  all  losses,  the  per  capita  loss  to  the  people  of  the 
valley  would  greatly  exceed  the  per  capita  expense  to  Chicago. 
The  total  annual  losses  to  the  valley  may  readily  equal  Chicago's 
total  expense  for  treatment. 

DOES  IT  PAY?  The  figures  of  cost  of  sewage  treatment  show 
great  variation  and  it  is  probable  that  any  estimate  of  cost  or 
recovery  are  wide  of  the  mark  in  one  direction  or  the  other. 
However,  if  one  brought  all  the  values  together  after  careful 
investigation,  he  could  probably  prove,  with  the  moral,  educa- 
tional, and  recreational  values  taken  into  account,  that  it  does 
not  pay  to  pollute  streams  or  other  bodies  of  water  with  un- 
treated sewage  and  industrial  wastes  or  to  modify  streams  and 
swamps  without  careful  consideration  of  values  other  than  the 
industrial  and  commercial.  Such  investigation  and  proof  are 
not  necessary.  The  nation  has  provided  immense  national  parks 
and  forest  reserves  for  the  use  of  everybody,  but  far  away  from 
the  bulk  of  the  population.  Each  state  should  provide  its 
citizens  with  some  of  the  same  kind  of  recreation  grounds, 
should  protect  each  and  every  small  community  from  the  de- 
struction of  its  recreation  grounds.  Each  child  has  a  right  to 
wade  in  the  creek  near  his  home  and  pick  up  stones ;  his  own 
community  must  protect  him  from  disease  and  filth. 

Under  pressure  for  economy  some  engineers  have  been  slow 
to  recognize  the  rights  of  the  smaller  community  to  the  fish- 
eries, sporting,  and  aesthetics  of  its  watercourses  against  the 
interests  and  selfish  encroachment  of  the  larger.  Certain 
American  engineers1  said  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  River 
Pollution :  "The  main  interest  lies  however  in  the  complete 
failure  to  recognize  dilution  of  sewage  as  method  of  treatment. 
Its  dilution  in  water  was  regarded  exclusive!}1"  as  a  method  of 
disposal.  A  city  which  has  a  neighboring  body  of  water,  where 
it  can  be  practiced  safely,  possesses  an  important  natural  re- 
source." The  men  failed  to  see  the  beauties  of  such  a  theory 
as  exemplified  by  most  of  our  streams  where  such  treatment  is 
practiced,  as  a  notable  example  the  Chicago  drainage  canal. 

The  capacity  of  streams  to  carry  away  human  and  industrial 

i  Metcalf,  L.,  and  Eddy,  P.  E.,  "American  Sewerage  Practice,"  Vol.  Ill, 
"Disposal  of  Sewage,"  New  York,  1916. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  WASTE  253 

wastes  is  a  natural  resource :  the  removal  of  these  is  necessary ; 
but  this  capacity  like  other  natural  resources,  if  it  be  admitted 
to  be  such,  being  largely  of  a  biological  nature  (self-purification 
being  a  biological  process),  is  quickly  destroyed  by  overtaxa- 
tion. Such  treatment  can  be  successfully  practiced  only  under 
close  supervision,  as  is  necessary  in  scientific  forestry,  for 
example.  The  principle  set  down  by  the  Massachusetts  state 
board  of  health  in  1875  still  holds,  "that  each  community  should 
dispose  of  its  own  filth  without  allowing  it  to  become  a  source 
of  offence  to  others. 

"While  realizing  that  in  certain  cases  the  discharge  of  crude 
sewage  into  boundary  waters  may  be  without  danger  it  is  our 
judgment  that  effective  sanitary  administration  requires  that 
no  untreated  sewage  from  cities  or  towns  shall  be  discharged 
into  boundary  waters."  (Report  of  engineers  to  the  Inter- 
national Joint  Commission.) 

Apparently  the  boundary  waters  are  not  a  natural  resource 
for  the  treatment  of  sewage  by  dilution,  and  why  not?  Because 
every  country  protects  its  humblest  citizen  from  the  acts  of 
foreign  nations  by  going  to  war,  if  necessary,  for  the  lives  of 
only  a  few.  Most  often  engineers  regard  waters  only  as  a 
source  of  supply  for  communities  which  have  waterworks,  but 
Phelps  recently  said:1 

"The  only  proper  basis  for  a  policy  of  stream  protection  is 
the  principle  of  conservation  of  stream  resources,  or  the  maxi- 
mum beneficial  use  of  the  stream.  The  application  of  this  policy 
involves  the  study  of  all  the  various  uses  of  the  stream  and  of 
the  value  of  each.  From  a  purely  economic  standpoint,  if  for 
no  more  potent  reason,  the  protection  of  life  and  health  demands 
first  consideration,  and  that  protective  policy  is  best  which 
best  protects  the  public  health  and  permits  the  maximum 
utilization  of  the  other  valuable  properties  of  the  stream." 

The  sanitary  engineers  for  a  state  board  of  health  recently 
said:  "The  principal  evil  growing  out  of  the  extensive  installa- 
tion of  modern  sewerage  systems  is  the  pollution  of  streams. 
Many  streams  in  the  United  States  have  been  grossly  polluted 

i  Phelps,  E.  B.,  "The  Control  of  Stream  Pollution— A  Problem  in  Eco- 
nomics," Mun.  and  Co.  Engineering,  55:22-24,  1918. 


254  WATER  RESOURCES 

as  to  be  fit  for  no  other  purpose  than  as  a  receptacle  and  an 
open  drain  for  putrefying  wastes.  This  situation  is  due  entirely 
to  the  fact  that  the  benefit  from  the  installation  of  adequate 
treatment  works  accrues  to  the  downstream  neighbors  of  a 
community  using  the  stream  as  a  wasteway  rather  than  to  the 
community  itself."  The  discussion  coming  from  some  of  the 
worst  offenders  is  not  encouraging,  as  it  usually  contemplates 
the  continuation  of  present  conditions  with  some  increased  load 
added  to  the  streams.  Ten  or  twenty  years  hence  they  antici- 
pate that  it  will  be  necessary  to  treat  the  sewage  from  enough 
of  their  population  to  keep  conditions  not  too  much  worse  than 
they  are  now. 

The  existence  of  such  large  and  noxious  wastes  and  the 
seriousness  of  their  effects  have  perhaps  been  sufficiently  en- 
larged upon  in  the  preceding  pages.  The  natural  argument 
in  condoning  the  fact  "is  that  it  constitutes  an  unfortunate  but 
necessary  and  inevitable  accompaniment  of  the  development  of 
manufacturing."  But  such  a  general  argument  as  that  is  met 
when  we  consider  for  a  moment  the  conditions  that  prevail  in 
other  countries.  When  the  manufacturer  makes  such  a  state- 
ment, and  he  is  asked  if  manufacturing  is  as  general,  if  popu- 
lation is  as  dense,  in  this  country  as  it  is  in  Englandj  or  Bel- 
gium, or  France,  or  Germany,  taking  conditions  before  the  war, 
he  will  hardly  venture  to  say  that  it  is. 

In  none  of  our  states  have  we  reached  the  development  of 
manufacturing,  nor  the  density  of  population  which  exists  in 
those  countries ;  yet  fishing  in  the  streams  of  the  Old  World  is 
better  than  it  is  in  these  streams  in  the  manufacturing  parts 
of  the  New  World;  and  pollution  at  the  present  time  is  much 
greater  here  than  it  is  there.  Much  improvement,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  has  been  made  in  the  older  parts  of  the  world  in  the 
course  of  the  last  half  century  in  cleaning  up  the  streams,  they 
have  paid  attention  to  that,  whereas  we  have  neglected  the 
problem.1 

In  this  country  one  goes  to  college  and  takes  a  course  in  the 
chemistry  of  paper  making  and  seldom  hears  a  word  about  how 

iWard,  H.  B.,  "The  Elimination  of  Stream  Pollution  in  New  York 
State,"  Trans.  Am.  Fish  Soc.,  XLVIII,  3-25,  1919. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  WASTE  255 

to  dispose  of  the  wastes,  not  even  in  the  university  of  a  state  in 
which  paper  mills  have  destroyed  many  salmon  and  their  breed- 
ing grounds.  The  stream  of  our  information  in  these  matters 
is  dried  up  at  the  source.  The  legal  situation  relative  to 
streams  pollution  is  peculiar.  In  most  cases  there  are  adequate 
laws  to  prevent  the  contamination  of  streams,  but  when  the 
state  goes  into  court  with  a  complaint,  the  offender  usually 
says,  "Tell  us  how  to  dispose  of  our  refuse  without  polluting 
the  streams  and  we  will  be  glad  to  do  so."  He  usually  is  sus- 
tained by  the  court  in  continuing  the  nuisance  until  the  com- 
plainant has  shown  how  it  can  be  done.  In  case  of  most  mis- 
demeanors the  offender  has  to  invent  his  own  means  of  stopping 
the  offence,  but  in  these  cases  the  state  must  discover  it  for 
him.  Perhaps  the  state  should  do  it  in  the  future.  The  con- 
dition of  our  laws  should  be  remedied  after  careful  investigation. 

WATER  FERTILIZATION  AND  SELF-PURIFICATION.  It  is  a  fact 
that  a  certain  amount  of  purely  household  sewage  added  to 
wrater  increases  nitrogen  and  hence  acts  as  a  fertilizer  increas- 
ing food  for  fish  and  other  aquatic  animals.  Certain  European 
towns  run  their  sewage  into  ponds  where  the  yield  of  carp  is 
increased  through  the  increase  of  fish  food.  It  is  easy  to  argue 
that  the  addition  of  sewage  to  streams  will  do  good !  Of  course 
that  would  settle  it  if  there  were  not  more  facts  to  consider. 

First,  in  practice  there  is  no  such  thing  as  pure  sewage ;  even 
in  the  smallest  town,  the  garage  runs  oil  and  gasoline  into  the 
sewers  and  the  creamery  adds  milk  wastes  or  the  gas  plant  adds 
quantities  of  deadly  poison  until  there  is  really  no  certainty 
that  the  process  of  breaking  down  the  organic  matter  of  the 
household  sewage  present  into  nitrogen  available  for  fish  food 
will  go  on.  In  many  cases  it  certainly  does  not. 

Secondly,  how  much  sewage  can  be  used  advantageously  as 
fertilizer?  The  amount  that  can  be  used  for  carp  may  be 
known,  but  carp  is  not  prized  by  Americans  and  amounts  suit- 
able for  carp  may  be  detrimental  to  most  aquatic  resources. 
It  is  difficult  for  one  to  conceive  of  the  physiological  diversity 
in  the  animals  of  a  river. 

Studies  of  fishes  in  the  Illinois  River  at  points  where  self- 
purification  has  proceeded  far  enough  to  permit  fishes  to  live, 


256  WATER  RESOURCES 

appear  to  show  that  fishes  have  increased.  This  case,  however, 
is  complicated  by  the  fact  that  water  diverted  from  Lake 
Michigan  has  increased  the  flow  and  added  greatly  to  the  over- 
flowed areas  and  hence  to  the  shallow  water  for  feeding  and 
breeding.  This  increased  space  is  believed  to  be  in  part 
responsible  for  the  increase  in  fish. 

The  number  of  fishes  which  come  from  the  lakes  and  bayous 
which  are  little  affected  by  the  pollution  is  unknown,  as  well  as 
the  number  of  fishermen  before  and  after  the  introduction  of 
Chicago  sewage  and  accordingly  this  case  cannot  be  used  to 
show  anything  about  this.  Further,  the  loss  of  the  Buffalo  fish, 
the  big  pickerel  and  wall-eyed  pike  noted  on  page  276 
indicates  that  the  increase  has  not  been  general,  but  that  while 
it  is  not  certain  that  some  fishes  are  favored,  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  what  favors  one  species  is  detrimental  to  another. 
There  is  no  investigation  showing  how  much  sewage  is  advan- 
tageous. 

When  is  a  stream  self-purified?  The  sanitary  chemist  and 
bacteriologist  have  criteria,  but  so  far  as  their  tests  are  con- 
cerned, the  stream  may  be  so  thoroughly  purified,  by  acid 
waste  for  example,  that  nothing  belonging  to  our  aquatic 
biological  resources  remains. 

The  most  delicate  test  for  the  suitability  of  water  for  impor- 
tant aquatic  organisms  is  perhaps  the  microscopic  organisms 
which  serve  indirectly  as  food  for  fishes.  When  these  are  gone, 
especially  from  the  bottom,  there  can  hardly  be  any  fish.  The 
biologist  with  careful  study,  based  on  new  research,  can  estab- 
lish the  point  at  which  self-purification  has  taken  place,  for 
example,  from  the  standpoint  of  fish.  One  finds  in  the  litera- 
ture assumptions  about  dissolved  oxygen,  but  little  that 
is  established  from  the  standpoint  of  the  physiology  and  inter- 
dependence of  important  aquatic  animals.  The  ecological 
requirements1  of  important  aquatic  species  are  the  final  court 

i  Shelford,  V.  E.,  "Ecological  Succession.  I.  Stream  Fishes  and  the 
Method  of  Physiographic  Analysis,"  Biol.  Bull.,  21:  9-35.  "II.  Pond  Fishes," 
Biol.  Bull.,  21:127-151.  "III.  A  Reconnaissance  of  its  Causes  in  Ponds, 
with  Particular  Reference  to  Fish,"  Biol.  Bull.,  22:  1-38.  "Suggestions  as 
to  Indices  of  the  Suitability  of  Bodies  of  Water  for  Fishes,"  Trans.  Am. 
Fisheries  Soc.,  44:27-32. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  WASTE  257 

of  appeal,  but  the  law  on  which  decisions  are  to  be  based  is  yet 
to  be  constructed  from  existing  scattered  knowledge  and  espe- 
cially from  future  research. 

NEEDED  RESEARCH.  If  it  is  possible  to  determine  what  in- 
jury has  taken  place,  some  one  may  ask  what  is  the  use  of  con- 
ducting elaborate  experimental  studies.  This  is  because  we 
must  know  what  constituents  of  waste  effluents  are  capable  of 
doing  damage. 

The  relations  of  fishes  to  the  various  effluents  are  too  little 
known  to  warrant  many  conclusions.  A  large  number  of  ques- 
tions demand  investigation.  Tests  of  the  toxicity  of  sewage 
and  industrial  wastes  and  other  poisons  introduced  into  the 
water  must  be  made.  In  doing  this  it  is  not  sufficient  that  we 
take  any  fish  or  other  animal  we  pick  up.  An  animal  that  is 
representatively  sensitive  must  be  chosen  and  after  this  has 
been  done,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  that  every  life  history 
may  be  represented  as  an  endless  chain  made  up  of  links  of 
different  strength,  as  noted  on  page  278. 

Conditions  in  streams  and  other  bodies  of  water  vary;  the 
concentration  of  the  polluting  substance  should  be  known.1  The 
minimum  flow  of  a  stream  usually  gives  the  greatest  concen- 
tration. The  summer  low-water  conditions  are  dangerous 
because  of  little  flow  and  high  temperature,  which  increases 
toxicity ;  the  winter  low  water  because  of  slow  flow  and  ice, 
which  prevents  aeration.  Perhaps  something  might  be  done, 
such  as  forcing  air  through  the  effluent  near  the  point  where 
the  pollution  is  introduced,  to  reduce  this  danger  during  critical 
periods  by  increasing  oxygen  and  removing  carbon  dioxide. 

The  removal  of  constituents  and  the  results  of  treatment  of 
various  polluting  substances  must  be  fully  analyzed.  It  is 
necessary  to  know  the  results  of  treatment  of  sewage,  indus- 
trial wastes,  etc.,  in  terms  of  their  effects  on  useful  aquatic 
animals.  If  coal  tar2  wastes  are  partially  recovered,  it  is  neces- 

1  Shelford,  V.  E.,  "Ways  and  Means  of  Measuring  the  Dangers  of  Pollu- 
tion to  Fisheries,"  Bull.  111.  N.  H.  Surv.,  13:  (2)  25-41,  1918. 

"Fortunes  in  Wastes  and  Fortunes  in  Fish,"  Sci.  Mo.,  August,  1919. 

2  Shelford,  V.  E.,  "An  Experimental  Study  of  the  Effects  of  Gas  Waste 
upon  Fishes,  with  Especial  Reference  to  Stream  Pollution,"  Bull.  111.  State 
Lab.  Nat.  Hist.,  11:381-412,  1917. 


258  WATER  RESOURCES 

sary  to  know  whether  the  residue  is  still  toxic.  Experiments 
have  shown  that  nearly  all  constituents  are,  and  hence  any 
residue  will  be  almost  certain  to  be  poisonous.  The  substances 
which  are  introduced  into  the  water  not  only  affect  fishes  di- 
rectly but  also  act  through  effects  on  the  bottoms  on  which  eggs 
and  valuable  mollusks  rest. 

The  covering  of  bottoms  with  a  large  amount  of  sawdust  and 
other  rubbish  makes  the  spawning  grounds  useless.  The  re- 
action of  the  animals  demands  attention. 

The  time  it  takes  a  body  of  water  to  recover  if  it  has  once 
been  depleted  must  be  considered.  It  has  been  shown  that  a 
whole  association  of  plants  and  animals  must  redevelop  in 
places  of  this  sort.  If  a  pine  forest  is  destroyed  by  fire,  fire- 
weeds  grow  up,  followed  by  cottonwoods  or  birches  and  after 
a  long  time  pines  again.  A  similar  slow  process  must  take  place 
in  depleted  waters. 

There  is  danger  in  decisions  made  without  investigation  of 
a  particular  case.  One  important  reason  for  this  is  that  poisons 
are  in  some  cases  rendered  much  less  toxic  by  salts  in  solution 
in  the  water  polluted  and  in  other  cases  they  are  rendered  much 
more  toxic  by  the  salts  present.  The  effect  of  greatly  diluted 
effluents  should  be  studied  under  culture  conditions  for  one  or 
more  seasons.  When  the  engineer  and  chemists  have  an  effluent 
to  test,  there  is  no  one  to  test  it  adequately  and  no  one  to  tell 
them  what  its  effects  will  be.  Provisions  for  such  investigation 
should  be  made  at  once,  and  on  a  larger  scale  than  ever  before. 


Plate  XVII.  A. 

Blackfeet  Indians  on  their  reservation  in  Montana  employed  on  con- 
servation works.  In  the  foreground  old  Iron  Eater,  one  of  the  best  work- 
ingmen  of  the  locality. 


A\ 


Plate  XVII.  B. 

Apache  Indian  laborers  at  Roosevelt  Reservoir  in  Arizona.  The  employ- 
ment of  these  Indians  was  made  possible  by  the  construction  of  works  for 
water  conservation. 


Plate  XVII.   C. 

Mountain  forests  and  lake  made  possible  by  the  run-off  from  the  forested 
area.  It  is  necessary  to  protect  the  wooded  area  around  such  natural  lakes 
in  order  to  maintain  good  conditions  of  water  supply  and  to  prevent 
excessive  erosion  of  the  hill  slopes  such  as  follow  the  destruction  of  the 
natural  growth. 


Plate  XVII.  D. 

Underground   storage   made   available   by   deep   boring;    an    artesian   well 
near  Roswell,  New  Mexico. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

INDUSTRY    AND     TRANSPORTATION, 
FOURTH   AND    FIFTH   USES    OF   WATER 

MANUFACTURING.  In  the  manufacturing  industries,  includ- 
ing the  production  of  power  for  electrical  transmission  or  for 
direct  application,  water  conservation  by  storage  has  found 
and  is  finding  a  wide  application.  While  large  works  have  been 
built  for  municipal  supply  and  for  irrigation  development,  yet 
the  number  and  diversity  of  structures  built  by  commercial 
interests  far  exceed  those  provided  for  other  purposes. 

Before  the  question  of  city  supply  began  to  be  seriously 
considered  in  the  United  States,  there  were  built  innumerable 
small  dams  for  gristmills,  sawmills  or  for  ponding  logs.  Eacli 
year  there  was  an  increase  in  the  number  of  these  up  to  the 
time  when  steam  power  began  to  assert  its  place  and  crowd  out 
the  small  water  power  mills.  With  the  subsequent  revival 
brought  about  by  electrical  transmission  of  power,  attention 
was  again  drawn  to  the  question  of  regulating  the  stream  flow 
and  of  providing  by  storage  adequate  water  to  furnish  power 
for  the  peak  loads. 

Water  may  be  needed  in  manufacturing  not  only  for  power 
production  but  for  direct  consumption  in  one  or  another  of  the 
various  processes  or  for  use  in  steam  boilers  or  simply  for  wash- 
ing or  cooling.  Many  industries  require  an  ample  supply  of 
clean,  clear  water  such  as  can  be  had  only  by  holding  it  in 
ponds  to  permit  the  sediment  to  settle.  Occasionally  the  normal 
flow  of  the  stream  is  charged  with  a  considerable  amount  of 
mineral  matter  in  solution,  while  the  flood  waters  are  relatively 
free  from  dissolved  mineral  matter.  In  such  cases  water  storage 
may  be  resorted  to  in  order  that  the  softer  water  may  be  had. 

A  combination  of  the  interests  of  municipal  and  domestic 


260  WATER  RESOURCES 

supply,  of  fish  and  of  water  fowl  culture,  of  irrigation,  of 
sewage  disposal,  and  of  the  creation  of  power,  may  render  prac- 
ticable the  building  of  storage  works  which  for  any  single  pur- 
pose would  not  be  financially  feasible.  It  is  peculiarly  the  duty 
of  the  engineer  to  study  such  possibilities  and  while  planning 
to  conserve  the  water,  at  the  same  time  consider  how  this  water 
may  be  put  to  the  largest  practicable  number  of  uses  with  con- 
sequent greatest  gain  to  all  concerned.  For  example,  in  the 
case  of  the  Reclamation  Service,  while  primarily  its  duty  was 
to  store  water  for  irrigation  of  lands,  yet  the  engineers  in 
charge  felt  that  they  were  obligated  not  merely  to  consider  the 
uses  of  water  for  production  of  crops,  but  at  the  same  time  to 
obtain  the  maximum  development  of  power  compatible  with  this 
use  and  to  assist  in  the  creation  of  municipal  supplies  and  the 
encouragement  of  manufacturing.  Many  projects  are  thus 
studied  which  from  the  purely  agricultural  standpoint  might 
be  questionable  but  which  were  of  undoubted  value  when  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  the  other  purposes  to  which  the  water 
could  be  put. 

WATER  POWER.  In  the  employment  of  water  in  the  produc- 
tion of  power  are  required  large  volumes  with  steady  flow  and 
an  adequate  fall.  This  use  is  ordinarily  compatible  with  its 
later  employment  for  irrigation  or  in  manufacturing,  so  that 
development  of  water  power  goes  hand  in  hand  with  the  up- 
building of  other  industries. 

Since  1900  there  has  been  a  notable  revival  of  interest  in 
water  power  development.  Engineers  are  being  called  upon  to 
a  greater  extent  than  in  the  past  to  utilize  the  larger  and  more 
inaccessible  streams  of  the  country,  particularly  through  the 
building  of  storage  works.  Similar  conditions  prevail  through- 
out the  world,  and  in  localities  such  as  in  Norway  and  Sweden 
the  waterfalls  are  now  being  developed  and  utilized  by  electrical 
transmission,  the  cheap  power  making  possible  the  manufacture 
of  certain  chemicals,  particularly  the  fixation  of  nitrogen  from 
the  air  to  form  the  basis  of  agricultural  fertilizers. 

The  fact  that  operations  of  the  kind  above  noted  need  not 
necessarily  be  continuous,  as  in  the  case  of  supplying  power  for 
lights  or  street  railways,  renders  practicable  many  schemes. 


INDUSTRY  AND  TRANSPORTATION  261 

For  example,  the  proposed  use  of  power  which  may  be  devel- 
oped in  connection  with  an  irrigation  project  brings  up  the 
objection  that  the  power  is  intermittent  in  character  and 
cannot  be  employed  to  advantage  in  the  usual  manner.  In  the 
undeveloped  arid  region,  irrigation  must  precede  settlement, 
cultivation,  and  the  building  of  railroad  lines;  thus  there  is 
presented  the  fact  that  there  is  no  immediate  demand  for  the 
power  which  is  available  at  reasonable  cost.  The  engineer  is 
confronted  with  the  problem  as  to  what  to  do  with  any  excess 
beyond  that  needed  for  immediate  construction  purposes  or 
for  summer  pumping  for  irrigation  or  drainage.  One  of  the 
large  outlets  suggested  for  the  use  of  such  excess  power  is  the 
fixing  of  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  the  manufacture  of  ferti- 
lizers so  greatly  needed  in  the  new  country. 

A  power  plant  such  as  that  built  at  Minidoka  on  Snake  River 
in  Idaho  is  put  to  its  largest  use  in  connection  with  irrigation 
only  during  three  or  four  months  of  hot  weather.  The  plant  to 
be  kept  in  the  best  condition  for  this  time  of  maximum  demand 
should  be  operated  continuously.  It  is  obviously  impracticable 
to  shut  down,  disband  the  operating  force  and,  in  the  summer, 
get  back  the  skilled  men  and  run  the  machinery  at  high  speed. 
How,  then,  can  the  skilled  force  be  kept  busy  throughout  the 
year?  The  solution,  above  indicated,  of  chemical  industry  which 
can  be  carried  on  throughout  the  year  or  at  intervals  between 
the  irrigation  seasons  is  one  peculiarly  attractive. 

In  the  instance  just  mentioned,  it  has  been  found  practicable 
to  develop  a  winter  load  by  selling  the  power  at  low  rates  to 
the  small  communities,  not  merely  for  lighting,  which  would 
require  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  power,  but  for  heating  the 
houses,  schools,  and  other  buildings,  and  for  domestic  uses,  in- 
cluding cooking.  The  comfort  of  the  community  has  thus  been 
greatly  increased  and  it  has  been  practicable  to  create  a  market 
in  a  pioneer  agricultural  area.  There  is  moreover  the  demand 
for  fertilizers  and  it  is  probable  that  in  similar  localities,  with 
the  development  of  experience  along  these  lines,  it  will  be  prac- 
ticable to  bring  about  the  manufacture  of  chemicals  needed  by 
the  farmers  or  by  local  industries. 

Thus  it  happens  that  in  connection  with  the  works  built  for 


262  WATER  RESOURCES 

other  purposes,  it  is  occasionally  found  by  the  engineer  that 
power  may  be  developed,  particularly  below  storage  dams. 
There  are  also  points  near  the  head  or  along  the  line  of  the 
principal  canals  where  water  of  necessity  must  descend  to  lower 
levels  and  where  power  may  be  had.  As  a  rule,  however,  the 
best  and  largest  use  of  the  water  for  power,  as  above  stated, 
is  not  consistent  with  its  economical  employment  in  irrigation. 

For  most  purposes,  such  as  in  manufacturing  or  in  electrical 
lighting,  and  in  transportation,  power  must  be  practically  con- 
tinuous or  at  least  available  at  regular  intervals  throughout 
the  year.  Irrigation  water,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  ap- 
plied only  during  a  limited  portion  of  the  year  and  at  other 
times  the  surplus  water  should  be  accumulated  in  reservoirs  or 
the  canals  should  be  allowed  to  become  dry.  There  are  occa- 
sionally conditions  where  power  during  the  irrigation  season 
has  particular  value  and  may  be  used  to  advantage,  either  in 
supplementing  the  water  supply  obtained  in  other  ways  or  used 
in  pumping  or  draining  lower  lands. 

There  are  also  instances  where  storage  reservoirs  are  built 
on  streams,  the  total  flow  of  which  is  not  available  for  storage. 
For  example,  it  may  be  necessary  to  pass  through  a  reservoir 
a  certain  minimum  flow  for  the  satisfaction  of  vested  rights 
farther  down  the  stream.  The  building  of  the  dam  and  the 
permanent  maintenance  of  high-water  level  in  the  reservoir 
enables  the  creation  of  a  steady  power  because  of  the  fact, 
above  stated,  that  a  certain  quantity  of  water  must  continually 
flow  through  or  around  the  dam.  Such  is  the  case  above  noted 
on  the  Snake  River  in  southern  Idaho,  where  at  Minidoka  Dam 
a  certain  low-water  supply  must  be  permitted  to  continue  down- 
stream to  supply  prior  claimants.  Here  water  power  has  been 
developed  and  is  being  supplied  throughout  the  year,  irrespective 
of  the  demands  for  irrigation. 

The  financial  success  of  any  project  of  water  conservation 
by  storage  may  thus  be  dependent  to  a  large  degree  upon  the 
complete  development  of  all  of  these  possibilities  of  power  and 
related  commercial  enterprises.  Hence  it  is  incumbent  upon 
the  engineer  in  planning  a  system  of  water  storage  to  consider 
whether  by  any  modifications  it  will  not  be  possible  to  provide 


INDUSTRY  AND  TRANSPORTATION  263 

for  power  development  and  use.  In  connection  with  construc- 
tion also  there  are  always  questions  of  cheap  power,  and  cases 
have  arisen  where  the  cost  of  construction  has  been  greatly 
reduced  by  arranging  the  original  plans  in  such  a  way  as  to 
build  the  power  plants  first  and  thus  utilize  these  in  connection 
with  the  later  construction  work.  For  example,  in  building  the 
Roosevelt  Dam  in  Arizona,  the  fuel  cost  was  a  large  item.  Many 
of  the  difficulties  wrere  solved  by  first  building  a  power  canal 
and  temporary  power  plant,  the  canal  being  located  around  the 
upper  edge  of  the  proposed  reservoir  and  the  power  plant 
immediately  below  the  dam  which  was  to  be  erected. 

The  development  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  United 
States  in  water  power  has  been  greatly  delayed  by  lack  of  suit- 
able laws  drawn  to  encourage  or  permit  investment  of  private 
or  public  fund  and  to  protect  the  interests  of  all  concerned.1 
Congress  after  Congress  has  failed  to  agree  upon  a  measure 
acceptable  to  the  investors  and  to  the  conservationists  who  are 
trying  to  hold  the  "birth  right  of  the  people"  for  use  and  enjoy- 
ment by  all,  rather  than  permit  the  creation  of  monopolies  in 
hydro-electric  power,  a  factor  which  now  enters  into  the  life  of 
each  citizen  through  light,  heat,  transportation,  and  other  uses. 

TRANSPORTATION  OR  THE  FIFTH  USE  OF  WATER.  In  consid- 
ering the  water  resources  of  the  nation  and  their  utilization,  the 
kind  of  use  to  which  they  may  be  put,  which  has  recently 
been  considered  as  least  essential  to  human  welfare,  is  that 
pertaining  to  navigation, — to  the  carriage  of  persons  and 
goods.  This  use  was  not  always  thus  regarded  as  fifth  in  order ; 
on  the  contrary,  from  a  legal  standpoint  commerce  and  navi- 
gation originally  had  first  claims,  superior  in  many  instances 
to  those  of  irrigation  or  disposal  of  waste.  This  arises  from 
the  fact  that  in  former  times  when  population  was  less  dense, 
there  was  little  need  of  conservation  or  of  safeguarding  the 
waters  of  the  country.  At  that  time,  before  railways  or  high- 
ways were  fully  developed,  the  growth  of  the  nation  was  largely 
dependent  upon  waterways.  In  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States  and  in  national  and  state  laws  provisions  were  made  for 

i  International  Engineering:  Congress,  1915.  Volume  on  Electrical  Engi- 
neering and  Hydro-Electric  Development. 


264  WATER  RESOURCES 

guarding  the  navigation  rights,  for  then  waterworks  or  sewer- 
age systems  were  practically  unknown  and  the  need  did  not 
exist  for  recognizing  them  in  legal  enactments. 

There  has  been  a  revival  of  interest  in  transportation  matters 
and  in  the  period  of  reconstruction  or  reorganization  following 
the  world  war  it  is  more  generally  appreciated  than  ever  before, 
that  inland  transportation  is  vital  to  modern  industry  and  that 
every  economically  possible  means  of  carrying  goods  and 
persons  should  be  employed.  Among  the  various  methods  are 
the  three  designated  by  the  National  Rivers  and  Harbors  Con- 
gress as  the  "Transportation  Trinity,"  viz.,  "Road,  Rail, 
River."  As  stated  by  them,  "The  greatest  possible  prosperity 
can  be  assured  to  our  country  only  through  the  equal  develop- 
ment and  the  harmonious  co-operation  of  highways,  railways 
and  waterways."  Such  development  is  dependent  upon  engi- 
neering enterprise  and  skill.  In  this  connection  attention  is 
given  to  only  one  of  these,  namely,  inland  waterways. 

As  an  aid  to  these  inland  waterways,  to  render  them  more 
effective  in  the  transportation  of  persons  and  goods,  water 
conservation  by  storage  has  been  employed,  particularly  in 
connection  with  canals.  In  a  few  instances  reservoir  construc- 
tion has  been  urged  because  of  its  assumed  benefits  to  the  rivers 
in  their  use  in  navigation. 

Under  the  terms  of  the  constitution  of  the  United  States, 
Congress  has  sole  authority  over  interstate  transportation. 
Because  of  this  condition  efforts  are  made  annually  to  obtain 
from  Congress  large  appropriations  for  improvement  of  rivers 
and  harbors.  Each  Congressional  district  under  the  operation 
of  the  so-called  "pork  barrel"  system  is  supposed  to  obtain  its 
share  of  these  appropriations.  Thus  there  are  many  projects 
proposed,  which,  in  themselves,  have  little  merit  other  than  that 
they  serve  to  distribute  the  funds  geographically.  The  effect 
upon  commerce  of  the  proposed  expenditure  may  be  slight,  as 
the  immediate  object  is  to  secure  the  money  and  thus  momen- 
tarily increase  the  activity  of  some  particular  section.  This 
condition  has  greatly  complicated  conditions  as  regards  the 
investigation  and  ascertaining  of  the  true  merits  of  any  project 
of  inland  navigation  improvements. 


INDUSTRY  AND  TRANSPORTATION  265 

Under  this  system  of  Congressional  appropriations,  storage 
reservoirs  have  been  built,  for  example,  on  the  headwater  of 
the  Mississippi  River,  presumably  for  improving  navigation 
farther  downstream.  The  benefit  derived  from  the  use  of  these 
reservoirs  is  not  notable  and  the  water  when  turned  into  the 
river  has  raised  the  level  of  the  navigable  portion  hardly  more 
than  an  inch  or  two.  Much  larger  benefits,  however,  are  de- 
rived by  the  water  power  mills  situated  at  or  near  St.  Anthony 
Falls  and  it  is  fairly  safe  to  assume  that  the  persons  who  urged 
an  appropriation  for  storage  reservoirs  have  been  more  con- 
cerned with  the  benefit  to  be  derived  by  the  water  power  than 
by  the  transportation  interests.  The  latter,  in  fact,  are  prac- 
tically negligible,  as  boats  have  almost  ceased  to  run  on  the 
Mississippi  River  at  points  where  the  height  of  water  would 
be  affected  by  the  discharge  from  the  reservoirs. 

Artificial  channels  for  navigation,  such  as  the  canals  which 
were  built  and  operated  so  successfully  half  a  century  ago, 
depend  largely  upon  stored  water  for  the  upper  levels.  Where 
the  canals  passed  over  the  relatively  high  ground  or  divides 
between  the  lower  valleys,  it  was  necessary  to  provide  water 
to  supply  the  loss  in  lockage,  especially  during  the  dry  summer 
time.  Many  large  reservoirs  were  built  in  New  York,  Ohio, 
and  other  states.  When  the  canals  were  abandoned  in  whole 
or  in  part,  these  reservoirs  continued  to  be  utilized  in  various 
ways,  particularly  for  water  power. 

NEW  YORK  CANALS.  The  largest  and  most  important  of 
these  canals  and  the  one  which  has  continued  in  use  for  the 
longest  time  is  the  Erie  Canal,  the  main  portion  of  which  extends 
from  Buffalo  at  the  east  end  of  Lake  Erie  easterly  to  the  vicinity 
of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Hudson  River,  making  a  through 
route  for  water  transportation  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  tide- 
water. In  the  construction  of  this  canal  a  number  of  reservoirs 
were  built  and  the  subject  of  water  conservation  bv  storage  was 
given  early  consideration.  While  the  reservoirs  were  designed 
with  reference  to  supplying  the  canal  with  water  for  navigation 
purposes,  yet  in  the  course  of  time  there  grew  up  almost  un- 
noticed a  large  number  of  water  power  developments  and  some 


266  WATER  RESOURCES 

of   the   reservoirs   have   proved   of   considerable   value   in   this 
connection. 

Much  of  the  early  prosperity  of  the  state  of  New  York  and 
its  present  growth  has  been  due  to  the  Erie  Canal,  thus  when 
the  time  came  that  the  abandonment  of  this  waterway  was 
seriously  considered,  the  people  of  the  state  urged  perhaps 
more  by  sentiment  based  on  past  success  than  on  business  judg- 
ment, were  induced  to  undertake  the  reconstruction  and 
enlargement  into  what  is  known  as  the  Barge  Canal,  involving 
an  expenditure  of  over  $150,000,000,  paid  wholly  from  state 
funds  and  without  aid  from  the  federal  government. 

The  Erie  Canal  was  started  in  1817,  the  route  of  waterway 
having  been  gone  over  previously  and  approved  by  President 
Washington.  As  originally  built,  it  had  a  depth  of  four  feet 
and  could  float  a  thirty-ton  boat.  It  was  opened  October  25, 
1825,  and  soon  proved  to  be  one  of  the  world's  greatest  canals. 
Settlers  flocked  from  the  eastern  states  westward  by  way  of 
the  canal  and  prosperous  towns  were  established  on  the  Great 
Lakes  and  connecting  water.  The  shipping  that  once  went  to 
Philadelphia  and  other  cities  was  diverted  to  New  York  and 
the  latter  soon  became  the  commercial  center  of  the  American 
union,  due  largely  to  the  facilities  provided  by  the  Erie  Canal. 
By  1882  it  was  found  that  the  Erie  Canal  had  earned  over  and 
above  all  its  original  cost  and  the  expenses  of  enlargement  and 
maintenance,  a  total  of  $42,000,000.  At  that  time  it  had  a 
depth  of  seven  feet  and  could  float  a  boat  of  240  tons.  Its 
relative  usefulness  declined  rapidly,  however,  with  the  building 
of  through  railroad  lines,  so  that  to  maintain  its  position  the 
friends  of  the  canal  urged  that  it  be  enlarged  into  what  is 
termed  the  Barge  Canal. 

The  Barge  Canal  consists  of  four  branches,  the  Erie  running 
lengthwise  across  the  state,  the  Champlain  extending  north- 
ward along  the  eastern  boundary,  the  Oswego  branching  near 
Syracuse  to  Lake  Ontario,  and  the  Seneca  Canal  running  south- 
ward to  the  large  lakes  from  one  of  which  it  takes  its  name.  It 
follows  in  part  the  old  canal,  but  utilizes  wherever  practicable 
the  rivers  and  lakes  near  its  route  so  that  at  least  30  per  cent  is 
on  what  is  known  as  the  land  line.  The  total  length  is  446  miles, 


INDUSTRY  AND  TRANSPORTATION  267 

of  which  the  Erie  proper  is  389  miles.  The  minimum  depth  is  12 
feet,  width  94  feet  in  rock  cuts,  and  125  feet  in  earth  sections. 

All  of  the  locks  have  been  reconstructed  and  built  of  concrete. 
They  have  a  length  of  328  feet  and  a  width  of  45  feet.  The 
lift  varies  from  6  to  40.5  feet.  The  most  notable  are  the 
five  at  Water  ford  at  the  east  end,  with  a  combined  lift  of  169 
feet.  In  order  to  utilize  the  Mohawk  River  in  part,  movable 
dams  have  been  built  in  the  form  of  truss  bridges,  from  which 
heavy  steel  gates  are  raised  or  lowered  to  govern  the  depth  of 
water  in  the  canalized  river  bed.  The  boats  or  barges  wrill  be 
propelled  by  mechanical  means,  the  towpath  formerly  used 
when  the  boats  were  hauled  by  animal  power  being  omitted. 
("The  New  York  Barge  Canal"  by  Frank  M.  Williams,  in 
Clarkson  Bulletin,  Vol.  8,  July,  1916.) 

WATER  STORAGE  FOR  CANAL.  The  greater  part  of  the  water 
supply  for  the  Barge  Canal,  as  for  the  old  Erie  Canal,  is  de- 
rived from  the  Niagara  River  on  the  west  and  from  the  smaller 
rivers  near  the  center  of  the  state.  For  what  is  known  as  the 
Rome  summit  level,  the  water  has  been  obtained  from  reservoirs 
on  the  head  of  Black  River  and  other  streams.  From  the  south 
of  the  canal  supplies  have  been  received  from  various  creeks, 
some  being  diverted  from  the  headwater  of  the  adjacent 
Susquehanna  drainage  basin.  The  most  notable  work  for  water 
conservation  is  the  new  reservoir  about  five  miles  north  of  Rome, 
impounding  the  water  of  the  upper  Mohawk  River  in  what  is 
known  as  the  Delta  Reservoir.  This  is  formed  by  a  dam  1,100 
feet  long  with  a  maximum  height  of  100  feet.  The  reservoir 
has  an  area  of  4.5  square  miles  and  a  capacity  of  63,000  acre- 
feet. 

Another  new  reservoir  is  that  formed  near  Hinckley  by  a 
dam  mainly  of  earth,  3,700  feet  in  length,  the  maximum  height 
of  the  masonry  portion  being  82  feet.  The  area  of  the  reservoir 
is  4.46  square  miles  and  the  capacity  79,000  acre-feet. 

These  reservoirs  serve  not  only  to  supply  the  Barge  Canal, 
but  during  the  unprecedented  flood  of  March,  1913,  the  Delta 
Reservoir  stored  water  of  the  upper  Mohawk  so  that  Rome, 
Utica,  and  near-by  villages  experienced  no  inconvenience  from 


268  WATER  RESOURCES 

the  flood  conditions.     (Barge  Canal  Bulletin,  Vol.  6,  page  228, 
and  Vol.  7,  page  111.) 

With  the  exception  of  the  reconstructed  Erie  Canal,  there 
has  been  nearly  complete  abandonment  of  artificial  waterways 
of  this  character,  so  that  it  may  be  said  that  at  the  present 
time  water  conservation  for  purposes  of  navigation  is  largely 
negligible.1  Nevertheless  there  are  a  number  of  projects  which 
are  being  discussed  from  time  to  time  and  the  effect  of  con- 
struction of  reservoirs  upon  navigation  is  still  a  live  issue.  For 
example,  in  the  case  of  the  Sacramento  River  in  California. 
This  stream  is  in  theory  at  least  navigable  and  at  favorable 
seasons  of  the  year  a  few  small  boats  ply  on  its  water,  thus 
giving  an  argument  for  federal  control  of  the  stream.  The 
waters,  however,  have  far  more  value  to  the  state  if  used  for 
irrigation.  It  has  been  proposed  to  store  the  floods  in  reser- 
voirs which  may  be  constructed  along  the  upper  reaches  of  the 
stream  or  near  the  headwater.  By  the  building  of  these  reser- 
voirs the  regimen  of  the  river  will  be  greatly  altered  and  it  may 
be  found  desirable  to  hold  back  the  entire  flow  of  the  river 
during  certain  parts  of  the  year.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
urged  that  the  reservoir,  if  constructed,  should  be  so  utilized 
as  to  keep  a  steady  flow  in  the  stream.  The  latter  proposition 
is  of  doubtful  practicability,  but  it  is  obvious  that  from  senti- 
mental, if  not  from  more  substantial  reasons,  the  question  of 
navigation  must  be  carefully  considered  when  the  storage  of 
water  on  this  or  other  rivers  similarly  situated  is  being  discussed. 

i  For  more  complete  discussion  see: 

Harts,  Col.  W.  W.,  "Rivers  and  Railways  in  U.  S.,"  Proc.  Amer.  Soc. 
C.  E.,  January,  1915,  Trans.,  Vol.  79,  p.  919. 

Moulton,  H.  G.,  "Waterways  vs.  Railways,"  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1914,  468 
pages.  (Discusses  Lakes  to  Gulf  Ship  Canal,  "Fourteen  Feet  through  the 
Valley,"  and  "Eight  Feet  from  Lake  to  Gulf.") 


Plate  XVIII.  A. 
Furrow  irrigation,  Yakima  Project,  Washington. 


Plate  XVIII.  B. 

Farm   lands    destroyed   by   floods;    banks    of    New    River    near    Imperial, 

California. 


Plate  XVIII.  C. 

Increased    length    of    spillway    produced    by    rectangular    bays,    Klamath 

Project,  Oregon. 


Plate  XVIII.  D. 
River  gates  in  Minidoka  Dam,  Idaho. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
RIVER  REGULATION 

COMPREHENSIVE  PROJECTS.  All  the  varied  uses  of  water  in- 
cluded under  the  heading  previously  given,  are  affected  more 
or  less  directly  by  the  behavior  of  the  natural  streams.  In 
nearly  every  instance  the  benefits  to  mankind  are  dependent  to 
a  certain  extent  upon  a  systematic  regulation,  quantity  and 
quality,  of  the  flowing  water,  a  smoothing  out  of  the  inequali- 
ties between  the  extremes  of  flood  and  drought.  It  would,  there- 
fore, seem  to  be  the  natural  course,  and  the  one  which  will  pro- 
duce the  largest  benefits  to  the  greatest  number,  if  every  river 
should  be  studied  and  treated  as  a  whole,  beginning  with  its 
headwaters  and  taking  up  each  natural  condition  and  its  rela- 
tion to  the  immediate  and  future  needs  of  the  people  of  the 
country.  This  idea,  while  by  no  means  novel,  was  most  definitely 
urged  by  the  late  Francis  G.  Newlands  of  Nevada,  whose  name 
is  connected  with  the  Reclamation  Act,  under  the  terms  of  which 
the  principal  reservoirs  of  the  arid  west  have  been  constructed. 

Senator  Newlands  introduced  various  bills  in  Congress  and 
persistently  brought  to  public  attention  the  necessity  of  treat- 
ing each  river  system  as  a  unit,  studying  the  forests  and  cul- 
tural conditions  from  the  mountain  sources  down  to  the  mouth 
of  the  stream,  ascertaining  the  most  advantageous  reservoir 
sites,  providing  for  the  maintenance  of  purity  of  water,  pre- 
venting soil  erosion,  clearing  the  channel,  utilizing  water  for 
irrigation  where  needed,  draining  the  wet  lands,  providing  for 
domestic  and  municipal  supply  and  adjusting  the  claims  for 
water  power,  all  such  work  being  undertaken  with  reference  to 
natural  conditions  rather  than  being  limited  by  political  or 
other  artificial  boundaries. 

In  opposition  to  this  broad  conception  are  the  views  of  indi- 
viduals and  communities  who  are  concerned  more  directly  with 


270  WATER  RESOURCES 

the  conditions  immediately  confronting  them.  They  sincerely 
believe  that  while  a  broad  plan  may  ultimately  be  desirable,  yet 
for  results  to  be  obtained  in  the  near  future,  they  should  con- 
centrate their  energies  upon  the  immediate  local  interests  and 
proceed  to  the  building  of  the  levees  or  to  the  construction  of 
other  works  which  are  obviously  needed  without  delaying  to 
ascertain  or  discuss  the  larger  matters  involved.  The  advo- 
cates of  either  alternative  have  many  strong  arguments  to 
present,  these  being,  on  the  one  hand,  for  broad  research  and 
a  constructive  policy  based  on  the  largest  good  to  the  greatest 
number;  on  the  other,  they  urge  the  immediate  practical 
benefits  to  be  derived  from  concentrated  efforts  on  the  things 
immediately  needed.  To  the  student  of  the  whole  subject, 
however,  and  to  the  statesman  who  looks  to  the  future  as  well 
as  to  the  present,  the  conception  presented  by  Senator  New- 
lands  is  peculiarly  attractive  and  must  ultimately  be  followed 
if  the  people  of  the  country  as  a  whole  are  to  enjoy  the  full 
use  of  the  natural  resources. 

The  legislation  urged  by  Senator  Newlands  and  finally  em- 
bodied in  a  law  a  short  time  before  his  death,  forms  Sec.  18  of 
the  Act  of  August  8,  1917  (Public.  No.  37 — 65th  Congress). 
It  provides  for  a  Waterways  Commission  of  seven  members  to 
bring  into  coordination  and  cooperation  the  engineering,  scien- 
tific, and  constructive  services,  bureaus,  boards,  and  commis- 
sions of  the  governmental  departments  of  the  United  States 
that  relate  to  study,  development,  or  control  of  waterways  and 
water  resources  or  to  the  development  and  regulation  of  inter- 
state and  foreign  commerce,  with  a  view  to  uniting  such  services 
in  investigating,  with  respect  to  al]  watersheds,  questions 
relating  to  the  development,  improvement,  regulation,  and  con- 
trol of  navigation  as  a  part  of  interstate  and  foreign  commerce, 
including  the  related  questions  of  irrigation,  drainage,  forestry, 
arid  and  swamp  land  reclamation,  clarification  of  streams, 
regulation  of  flow,  control  of  floods,  utilization  of  water  power, 
prevention  of  soil  erosion  and  waste,  storage,  and  conservation 
of  water  for  agricultural,  industrial,  municipal,  and  domestic 
uses,  cooperation  of  railways  and  waterways  and  promotion 
of  terminal  and  transfer  facilities. 


RIVER  REGULATION  271 

The  commission  is  to  report  to  Congress  a  comprehensive 
plan  for  the  development  of  the  water  resources  of  the  United 
States  for  the  purposes  of  navigation  and  for  every  useful 
purpose  and  to  formulate  recommendations  for  cooperation 
between  the  United  States  and  the  several  states,  municipalities, 
communities,  corporations  and  individuals  within  the  powers 
of  each,  with  a  view  to  assigning  to  the  United  States  such 
portion  of  the  proposed  development,  regulation  and  control 
as  may  be  undertaken  by  the  United  States,  and  to  the  states, 
municipalities,  corporations  or  individuals  such  portions  as 
belong  to  their  respective  interests. 

This  commission  was  not  appointed  owing  to  conditions  grow- 
ing out  of  the  war,  but  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  all 
these  matters  must  be  fully  considered.  Because  of  the  long 
delay  which  may  be  involved  in  fully  ascertaining  the  facts  and 
diffusing  this  information,  it  is  incumbent  upon  those  in  a 
position  to  do  so,  to  urge  the  early  and  comprehensive  study  of 
each  and  every  river  in  the  country  and  the  preparation  of 
plans  of  water  conservation  such  that  development  may  proceed 
in  detail  without  one  scheme  interfering  with  another  which  may 
ultimately  prove  to  be  more  important. 

The  most  apparent  need  for  a  broad  study  of  this  kind  is 
brought  about  by  the  demands  for  flood  prevention  and  pro- 
tection and  for  the  correlative  demand  for  more  water  during 
times  of  drought. 

Each  decade  is  seeing  larger  and  larger  destruction  wrought 
by  floods  and  greater  indirect  losses  through  drought.  The 
intensity  of  floods  and  duration  of  droughts  are  being  increased 
by  various  human  agencies,  and  more  than  this,  the  opportu- 
nities for  damage  are  becoming  greater.  The  preventable 
losses  amount  not  merely  to  millions,  but  to  tens  of  millions 
of  dollars.  The"  time  is  approaching  when  there  will  be  an 
appreciation  of  the  fact  that  by  wise  foresight  and  by  the 
expenditure  of  a  portion  of  this  amount,  many  of  the  more 
serious  of  these  losses  may  be  prevented. 

While  all  will  admit  that  a  broad  study  of  the  subject  such 
as  is  authorized  by  the  Act  of  August  8,  1917,  should  and  must 
ultimately  be  made  and  that  large  expenditures  are  needed  for 


272  WATER  RESOURCES 

conservation,  yet  action  is  delayed  principally  by  the  question, 
"Who  will  pay  the  bills?"  The  losses  from  the  lack  of  pre- 
vision fall  directly  on  a  relatively  small  part  of  the  population, 
although  indirectly  they  are  widely  distributed.  The  easy  way 
is  to  urge  that  the  federal  government  initiate  action  and  pay 
for  the  works,  but  experience  has  shown  that  while  this  may 
be  accomplished,  yet  a  fairer  way  and  one  which  in  the  end  will 
probably  produce  the  largest  results  is  to  apportion  the  ulti- 
mate cost  in  such  a  way  that  the  nation,  the  state,  the  com- 
munity, and  the  particular  interest  involved,  will  each  pay  its 
share.  Any  scheme  of  this  kind  properly  worked  out  has  the 
advantage  that  it  eliminates  many  of  the  worst  features  of 
"pork  barrel"  bills  in  that  the  incentive  of  obtaining  something 
for  nothing  is  largely  removed.  If  every  local  interest,  munici- 
pality or  state,  is  willing  to  pay  its  fair  share  of  the  cost,  it  will 
be  far  less  insistent  upon  urging  schemes  of  little  merit. 

FLOOD  PREVENTION  OR  PROTECTION.  In  considering  what 
may  be  done  in  a  large  way  with  reference  to  relief  from  floods, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  clearly  in  mind  the  difference  between 
flood  prevention  and  flood  protection.  Each  of  these  must  be 
employed  under  certain  conditions.  To  appreciate  these  it  is 
necessary  to  consider  the  larger  questions.  Each  stream  in  a 
state  of  nature  fluctuates  in  accordance  with  the  rapid  changes 
of  weather.  It  has  a  more  or  less  regular  periodic  fluctuation 
between  high  and  low  water,  having  usually  a  spring  flood  due 
to  increased  temperature,  the  melting  of  snow,  and  usual  rains. 
The  factors  which  combine  to  produce  floods  vary  in  intensity 
from  year  to  year;  occasionally  the  combination  of  extraordi- 
nary rains  on  frozen  ground  or  with  rapidly  melting  snow  pro- 
duces floods  of  exceptional  violence. 

Throughout  their  geological  history  the  streams  during  such 
high-water  periods  have  built  up  flood  planes  by  deposits  from 
the  muddy  waters.  Such  lands  are  of  exceptional  fertility  and 
their  level  character  has  invited  settlement.  The  tendency  has 
been  not  merely  to  cultivate  these  lands  but  to  build  manufac- 
turing establishments  and  towns  upon  the  level  surface.  In 
periods  of  low  water  or  even  of  ordinary  flood  there  is  no  diffi- 
culty, but  at  times  of  high  flood,  the  bridges,  factories,  and 


RIVER  REGULATION  273 

other  buildings  along  the  bank  interfere  with  the  free  flow.  The 
river  of  necessity  spreads  out  and  endeavors  to  take  possession 
of  its  ancient  flood  ground,  with  consequent  destruction  to  prop- 
erty or  even  life.  The  immediate  answer  to  questions  which  are 
presented  to  the  hydraulic  engineer  by  these  flood  conditions,  is 
to  remove  from  the  river  channel  and  the  flood  plain  the  obstruc- 
tions placed  there  by  man  and  to  erect  permanent  buildings  only 
on  higher  ground,  saving  the  lowland  for  such  agricultural 
purposes  as  will  not  be  seriously  injured  by  the  occasional 
floods  and  the  lowest  land  for  the  scientific  growth  of  timber 
which  encourages  important  aquatic  and  riparian  faunas.  This, 
however,  has  often  become  impracticable,  and  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  other  solutions  for  the  many  flood  problems.  In 
attacking  these  there  are  two  lines  of  effort — first,  flood  pre- 
vention; second,  flood  protection. 

In  flood  prevention,  the  remedy  is  to  be  sought  by  careful 
surveys  and  examinations  on  the  drainage  basin  to  discover 
possible  reservoir  sites  and  by  storing  the  flood  water  in  suitable 
basins,  enlarging  the  natural  ponds  or  lakes  or  making  arti- 
ficial reservoirs  where  the  floods  may  be  restrained  for  a  period 
of  days  or  weeks,  the  excess  being  let  out  slowly  in  accordance 
with  the  capacity  of  the  channels  to  receive  it.  There  are  not 
many  localities  where  adequate  reservoir  capacity  has  been  pro- 
vided by  nature  or  where  dams  can  be  erected  creating  a  reser- 
voir at  a  cost  commensurate  with  the  immediate  benefits.  In- 
vestigations have  been  made,  however,  on  the  headwaters  of 
many  flood  streams  and  it  is  evident  that  in  the  future  many 
reservoirs  will  be  constructed  to  reduce  the  flood  crest.  The 
further  drainage  of  upland  marshes,  which  serve  as  natural 
storage  sponges,  should  be  discouraged  and  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  water  culture  of  important  food  plants  should  be 
favored. 

In  flood  protection,  the  object  sought  is  to  build  near  the 
points  of  danger  large  dykes  (PL  IV.  C),  or  walls,  shutting  off 
the  river  from  its  ancient  flood  plain,  and  confining  it  in  a  rela- 
tively narrow  channel.  This  is  the  most  immediate  and  direct 
method  of  solving  the  difficulties  for  any  particular  locality,  but 
of  course  does  not  assist  other  threatened  points  as  in  the  case 


274  WATER  RESOURCES 

of  reservoirs  or  similar  works  built  for  flood  prevention.  In 
fact,  the  protection  of  one  area  may  jeopardize  another  by 
increasing  the  flood  heights.  The  combination  of  flood  pro- 
tection by  reservoirs  and  of  flood  prevention  by  dykes  offers 
many  interesting  problems  and  is  one  of  the  subjects  which 
should  be  given  protracted  study  as  proposed  and  as  already 
undertaken  in  a  more  or  less  piecemeal  way. 

MISUSE  OF  STREAMS.  It  is  not  alone  in  quantity  of  flow,  in 
guarding  against  flood  and  drought,  that  the  services  of  the 
student  and  engineer  are  needed.  Even  more  important  in  many 
ways  is  protection  against  misuse  as  pointed  out  in  preceding 
pages  245  to  256,  against  thoughtless  or  careless  destruction  of 
many  interrelated  natural  resources,  valuable  in  themselves  and 
for  which  public  funds  must  be  spent,  to  recover  or  replace, 
replenish  or  maintain.  As  pointed  out  by  Victor  E.  Shelf ord,1 
these  resources  include: 

(a)  Animal    resources:    fish,    turtles,    frogs,   mussels,    shell- 
fish, and  aquatic  birds  and  mammals. 

(b)  Plant    resources:    aquatic    vegetation,    stream-skirting 
shrubs  and  trees,  serving  as  feeding  and  nesting  place  of  impor- 
tant animals. 

(c)  Museum  resources:  preserves  for  aquatic  and  riparian 
faunas  for  future  scientific  investigation  and  possible  practical 
uses. 

(d)  Recreational     resources:     bathing,     rowing,     camping, 
angling,   shooting. 

(e)  ^Esthetic  resources. 

The  preservation  of  these  often  conflict  with  more  generally 
recognized  resources,  such  as  water  power,  water  supply,  and 
waste  effluent  dilution. 

The  use  of  streams  to  bear  away  sewage  and  industrial  wastes 
causes  pollution  and  this  in  turn  destroys  animal  resources, 
such  as  fishes  and  mussels ;  what  was  their  value  and  condi- 
tion before  destruction  occurred?  Pollutions  endanger  public 

i  The  remainder  of  the  chapter  is  a  slight  modification  of  a  manuscript 
by  Victor  E.  Shelford,  biologist  in  charge  of  Research  Laboratories,  Illi- 
nois Natural  History  Survey,  and  assistant  professor  of  Zoology,  University 
of  Illinois. 


RIVER  REGULATION  275 

health ;  to  what  extent  is  this  true,  and  what  is  the  cost  of  sick- 
ness, incapacitation,  or  death  resulting  therefrom?  They  de- 
stroy recreation  grounds ;  what  is  the  value  of  these  to  the  com- 
munity and  the  nation?  They  may  destroy  various  species  of 
our  fresh  water  fauna;  what  is  the  value  of  these?  They  may 
destroy  the  drinking  water  of  cattle ;  what  is  the  damage  caused 
by  this  ?  Foul  odors  result ;  what  is  the  damage  of  these  to  the 
public  and  property  owners  near  at  hand? 

Dams  may  destroy  fish  and  mussels ;  which  is  more  valuable, 
these,  or  the  power  generated?  The  draining  of  marshes  drives 
away  game  birds;  what  is  their  value?  What  is  the  museum 
value  of  marshes?  Is  drainage  the  best  way  to  utilize  them? 
What  is  their  value  for  aquiculture  or  for  water  storage?  The 
task  of  determining  and  comparing  with  each  other  the  benefits 
and  the  losses  arising  from  certain  customary  human  interfer- 
ences writh  the  wild  nature  of  our  woods  and  waters  is  not  by 
any  means  a  simple  one.  Even  those  who  have  devoted  much 
time  and  study  to  such  questions  have  difficulty  in  comprehend- 
ing all  the  complex  natural  factors  and  human  interests  in- 
volved even  in  such  an  apparently  simple  matter  as  the  pollu- 
tion of  a  stream  or  the  overfishing  of  a  lake  or  river. 

FISHES  AND  THEIR  VALUE.  In  the  settlement  and  early 
development  of  our  republic,  fishes  were  very  important.  There 
were  shad,  salmon,  trout,  bass,  alewives,  eels,  and  many  others 
which  "furnished  the  people  a  plentiful  and  healthful  supply  of 
food,  easily  attainable,  until  the  forests  could  be  hewn  down, 
clearings  made,  crops  raised,  and  cattle  could  increase  and 
multiply."1  Shad  was  the  most  important.  One  early  writer 
said  of  their  spring  runs  in  the  Delaware  and  Susquehanna 
rivers,  "They  came  in  such  vast  multitudes  that  the  still  waters 
seemed  filled  with  eddies,  while  the  shallows  were  beaten  into 
foam  by  them  in  their  struggles  to  reach  the  spawning  grounds." 
They  swarmed  every  spring  from  mouth  to  headwaters  of  every 
river  from  Maine  to  Florida.2  They  were  eaten  fresh,  and 

1  Wright,  Harrison,  "The  Early  Shad  Fisheries  of  the  North  Branch  of 
the  Susquehanna  River,"  Report  of  United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and 
Fisheries,  1881,  619-642. 

2  Meehan,  W.  E.,  "The  Battle  for  the  Fishes,"  Canadian  Fisherman,  1917, 
4:275-279. 


276  WATER  RESOURCES 

smoked  and  salted  for  winter  use.  "The  testimony  shows  that 
the  country  folk  came  from  fifty  miles  away  to  get  their  winter 
supply,  camping  along  the  river  bank,  and  bringing  in  payment 
whatever  they  had  of  a  marketable  nature."1 

Early  in  the  last  century,  $200,000  worth  of  shad  were  taken 
annually  from  the  Delaware  River  alone.  They  ceased  to  be 
abundant  about  1850  and  by  1880  their  value  in  this  river  had 
shrunk  to  $80,000  per  year.  This  was  due  to  overeaten,  to  the 
building  of  dams,  and  to  pollution.  The  Atlantic  salmon  at 
one  time  entered  all  the  rivers  of  New  England.  Striking 
apprentices  in  the  early  days  of  our  republic  demanded  less 
salmon,  that  it  should  not  be  served  more  than  three  times  per 
week.  Some  of  our  Pacific  Coast  salmon  resources  are  being 
reduced  in  numbers. 

Along  the  Illinois  River  years  ago,2  the  buffalo  fish  afforded 
the  chief  marketable  species.  These  were  caught  by  farmers, 
fishermen,  and  others,  and  shipped  by  boat,  principally  to  St. 
Louis,  where  large  quantities  of  fish  were  frequently  thrown 
away  because  the  market  was  overloaded.  In  1882,  about 
250,000  pounds  of  fish,  nearly  all  buffalo,  were  taken  at  one 
haul  of  the  seine,  in  Moscow  Lake,  just  below  Havana,  111.  In 
recent  years  less  than  8  per  cent  of  the  total  fish  catch  in  a 
year  at  Havana  has  consisted  of  buffalo — the  total  catch  of 
buffalo  in  1912,  amounting  to  only  about  94,000  pounds.  Re- 
cent hatchery  experience  on  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  rivers 
has  indicated  that  buffalo  eggs  are  unusually  sensitive  to  various 
unfavorable  influences.  It  is  believed  by  some  observers  that  in 
its  present  condition  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  the  central  and 
lower  Illinois  (as  well  as  the  upper)  may  not  offer  the  best 
hatching  conditions  for  this  species.  The  wall-eyed  pike  and  the 
big  pickerel  are  two  other  sensitive  species  that  have  practically 
disappeared  from  the  Illinois  River  in  the  last  25  years,  in  spite 
of  repeated  planting  of  millions  of  fry.  This  is  probably  due 
to  pollution. 

1  Wright,  Harrison,  "The  Early  Shad  Fisheries  of  the  North  Branch  of 
the  Susquehanna  River,"  Report  of  United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and 
Fisheries,  1881,  619-642. 

2  Information  in  this  paragraph  supplied  by  Mr.  R.  E.  Richardson. 


RIVER  REGULATION  277 

The  whitefish  of  the  Great  Lakes,  which  served  as  bread, 
meat,  and  vegetable  to  early  explorers  and  settlers,  was  once 
abundant,  but  now  the  number  is  exceptionally  small  in  com- 
parison. Every  stream  formerly  yielded  fish  to  small  boys  and 
to  old  men  anglers.  If  any  of  these  sources  now  yielded  half 
their  original  quantity  it  would  be  considered  remarkable.  Our 
fish  resources  have  been  depleted  through  neglect,  carelessness, 
and  the  pollution  of  waters.  Such  as  are  still  left  are  endan- 
gered by  new  projects  and  new  pollutions. 

The  wastes  of  manufacturing  plants  and  city  sewage  have 
greatly  aggravated  the  depletion,1  or  have  completed  the  de- 
struction previously  started,  in  some  cases  by  heedless  or  greedy 
fishermen ;  but  the  pollutions  are  far  more  serious  than  the 
initial  injury  because  they  preclude  the  possibility  of  easy 
recovery.  The  destruction  of  fishes  by  industrial  wastes  has 
been  common  throughout  the  country,  especially  within  the  last 
fifty  years.  The  fishes  destroyed  include  those  which  occurred 
in  commercial  numbers,  such  as  shad,  salmon,  and  whitefish  and 
numerous  game  fishes,  such  as  perch,  black  bass,  and  sunfishes. 

The  destruction  of  breeding  grounds  in  the  Great  Lakes  is 
credited  with  the  depletion  of  the  whitefish  supply.  In  1871, 
Milner  dredged  eggs  of  the  lake  trout,  together  with  decaying 
sawdust.  The  eggs  were  attacked  by  fungus.2  In  1908,  Clark 
expressed  the  opinion  that  through  the  accumulation  of  slow 
decaying  woody  material,  water-logged  lumber,  and  sewage,  the 
chief  breeding  grounds  of  the  Great  Lakes  had  been  destroyed 
and  could  not  be  recovered  for  a  long  time.  If  the  warning  of 
Milner  thirty-five  years  earlier  had  been  heeded,  they  would  have 
been  in  much  better  condition  than  at  present. 

The  destruction  still  goes  on,3  as  is  shown  by  such  cases  as 

1  Marsh,   M.   C.,   "The    Effect   of   Some   Industrial   Wastes   on    Fishes," 
U.  S.  G.  S.,  Water  Supply  Paper  No.  192,  1907,  337-348. 

2  Clinton,  G.  P.,  "Observations  and  Experiments  on  Saprolegnia  Infest- 
ing Fish,"  Bulletin  of  United  States  Fish  Commission,  1893,  13:163-173. 

Dean,  Bashford,  "Recent  Experiments  in  Sturgeon  Hatching  on  the 
Delaware  River,"  Bulletin  of  United  States  Fish  Commission,  1893,  13: 
335-339. 

3  Ward,    H.    B.,   "Report   on   a    Preliminary    Study   of    Streams,"    1919, 
New  York  State  Conservation  Commission.     (In  press.) 


278  WATER  RESOURCES 

the  following.  In  January,  1916,  in  a  small  river  below  Spring- 
field, 111.,  a  town  of  50,000  inhabitants,  large  numbers  of  dead 
fish  appeared  at  breaks  in  the  ice,  others  in  a  half  intoxicated 
state  were  caught  through  holes  in  the  ice.  Three  thousand 
pounds  of  fish  were  caught  in  three  days,  but  could  not  be  eaten 
because  of  a  bad  taste.  The  case  was  investigated  by  .the  Illinois 
Water  Survey.  The  death  of  the  fish,  according  to  the  report, 
was  due  to  lack  of  oxygen  and  poisoning  by  stream  pollutions, 
brought  about  by  sluggish  flow  and  heavy  ice  cover  preventing 
aeration. 

Industrial  wastes  are  more  serious  in  their  destructive  effect 
than  household  sewage.  Lead  and  zinc  works,  tanneries,  paper 
mills,  and  gas  plants  turn  valuable  and  extremely  toxic  or 
poisonous  substances  into  water.  Most  of  the  effluents  from  the 
gas  works  are  valuable,  and  all  are  toxic.1  Nearly  all  industrial 
wastes  in  Europe  have  been  made  into  something  useful.2  Why 
are  they  not  recovered  in  America?  It  will  not  pay  !  This  is  not 
the  full  answer.  More  often  manufacturers  do  not  care  to  spend 
time  and  energy  in  dealing  with  the  matter.  Their  object  is  to 
do  the  primary  thing  at  hand,  collect  the  profits  and  get  rid  of 
the  by-products  as  easily  as  possible. 

The  character  of  wastes  varies  with  the  processes  from  which 
they  result,  and  the  after  treatment.  Little  is  accurately  known 
as  to  the  effects  of  wastes  on  fishes  and  other  useful  animals 
such  as  form  food  for  fish;  research  is  needed.  The  resistance 
of  animals  differs  with  the  season,  the  age  of  the  individual  and 
other  factors.  Every  life  history  may  be  represented  as  an 
endless  chain  made  up  of  links  of  different  strength.  The  life 
of  the  species  is  determined  by  the  resistance  of  the  weakest 
link.  This  probably  falls  in  the  young  stages, — the  egg  or 
the  young  at  hatching;  it  is  not  known  for  the  life  cycle  of  a 
single  species  of  fish.  The  United  States  Bureau  of  Fisheries 
has  distributed,  for  planting,  from  one  to  three  billion  eggs  and 

1  Shelf ord,  V.  E.,  "An  Experimental  Study  of  the  Effects  of  Gas  Wastes 
upon  Fishes,  with  Special  Reference  to  Stream  Pollution,"  Bulletin  111,  St. 
Lab.  of  N.  H.,  1917,  11:381-412. 

2  Roller,  Theodor,  "The  Utilization  of  Waste  Products"  (translated  from 
Second  Revised  German  Edition),  1915,  Scott,  Greenwood  &  Sons,  London; 
D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.,  New  York. 


RIVER  REGULATION  279 

young  each  year  for  many  years  past,  but  no  work  tending  to 
show  the  most  sensitive  period  has  been  done.  Accordingly 
when  asked  whether  this  or  that  will  injure  fishes,  no  one  can 
tell.  This  has  tended  to  make  engineers  ignore  fishes.  Why 
should  they  consider  them  when  the  fish  expert  cannot  tell  what 
consideration  is  required? 

MUSSELS.  Fresh  water  mussels  for  making  pearl  buttons  con- 
stitute an  important  resource,  but  one  which  is  decreasing,  due 
to  overeaten  and  pollution  which  destroy  the  fish  upon  which 
the  mussels  depend.  Coker1  said :  "In  one  decade  pearl  buttons 
were  high  in  price,  used  only  upon  the  better  clothing  and 
commonly  saved  when  clothing  was  discarded,  while  in  the  most 
general  use  were  buttons  of  metal  or  agate  or  wood  which  rusted, 
broke  or  warped.  In  the  next  decade  good  pearl  buttons,  neat 
and  durable,  were  available  to  everybody  and  used  upon  the 
widest  variety  of  clothing.  A  former  luxury  had  become  a 
common  necessity."  In  19082  the  value  of  the  mussels  taken 
from  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  was  estimated  at 
$686,000. 

An  indication  of  the  importance  of  the  maintenance  of 
our  stream  and  river  faunas  is  the  fact  that  because  of  the 
reduction  of  the  supply  of  native  mussels  certain  manufac- 
turers in  order  to  operate  ordered  large  quantities  of  shells 
from  China.  Japan  seized  the  shells  and  had  them  delivered  to 
Japanese  factories  on  the  ground  that  the  products  of  China 
belonged  to  Japan.  Because  of  the  depletion  of  the  American 
supply  of  fresh  water  mussels,  the  federal  government  a  few 
years  ago  built  an  extensive  laboratory  and  ponds  for  research 
into  the  life  history  of  the  mussels,  with  a  view  to  increasing 
their  number.  It  has  been  found  that  the  young  spend  part 
of  their  lives  as  parasites  on  the  bodies  of  fishes,  notably  on 
the  more  sensitive  edible  game  fishes.  Thus  where  there  are 
no  fishes  there  will  be  no  mussels  to  make  the  buttons. 

NEED  OF  FISHWAYS.    In  the  north  branch  of  the  Susquehanna 

1  Coker,  R.  E.,  "The  Protection  of  Fresh  Water  Mussels,"  Report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  the  Fisheries,  1912. 

2  United  States  Bureau  of  Census,  1911,  "The  Fisheries  of  United  States 
in  1908." 


280  WATER  RESOURCES 

in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania  "The  shad  industry  was  wholly 
abolished  by  the  erection  of  dams  (early  in  the  last  century) 
and  thousands  of  dollars  of  capital  invested  in  the  business  was 
instantly  swept  out  of  existence."1  "There  is  no  question  but 
that  the  building  of  dams  to  feed  the  canals  put  a  stop  at  once 
to  shad  fishing."  The  question  has  been  raised  as  to  whether 
the  loss  was  not  "greater  than  the  benefits  derived  from  the 
great  internal  improvements."  Such  canals  have  been  quite 
generally  abandoned  in  recent  years. 

Atkins  has  described  a  number  of  fishways2  but  refers  to  one 
in  the  Susquehanna  at  Columbia,  Penn.,  as  the  only  successful 
one  for  shad.  It  is  constructed  on  a  plan  deserving  considera- 
tion, as  it  is  a  mere  open  sluiceway  with  its  lower  end  an  opening 
in  the  dam  itself  and  its  sides  a  little  higher  than  the  top  of 
the  dam.3  From  the  opening  in  the  dam  the  fishway  projected 
as  a  great  sloping  bottom.  The  length  is  determined  by  the 
height  of  the  dam  and  the  slope  of  the  bottom.  If  the  slope  is 
one  foot  in  thirty-five  feet  the  fishway  would  extend  upstream 
about  thirty-five  times  the  height  of  the  dam.  The  current 
down  the  fishway  should  not  be  too  swift.  Most  fishways  are 
too  small;  the  best  type  of  fishway  is  the  stream  itself  and  the 
aim  should  be  to  duplicate  stream  conditions  so  far  as  current 
is  concerned.  A  cost  equaling  half  the  cost  of  the  dam  is  not 
too  much  to  spend  to  accomplish  it.  Fishways  have  usually 
been  added  to  completed  dams  as  a  sort  of  cheap  adjunct, 
usually  at  the  expense  of  a  few  hundred  dollars.  This  is  often 
done  after  the  fishes  have  already  been  depleted  from  several 
years  of  failure  to  migrate.  The  importance  of  fishways  is 
well  illustrated  by  a  quotation  from  Coker4  relative  to  the 
Mississippi  dam  at  Keokuk,  Iowa. 

1  Wright,  Harrison,  "The  Early  Shad  Fisheries  of  the  North  Branch  of 
the  Susquehanna  River,"  Report  of  United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and 
Fisheries,  1881,  619-642. 

2  Atkins,  C.  B.,  "On  Fishways,"  United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and 
Fisheries,  Report  of  Commission  for  1872-73,  Part  II,  591-616,  1873. 

s  Bayer,  H.  Von,  "Fishways,"  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  1908,  28: 
1043-1057. 

*  Coker,  R.  E.,  "Water  Power  Development  in  Relation  to  Fishes  and 
Mussels  of  the  Mississippi,"  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Fisheries,  1913, 
appendix,  viii,  pp.  1-8. 


RIVER  REGULATION  281 

"Investigations  carried  on  by  the  Bureau  during  recent  years 
have  shown  that  mussels  do  not  necessarily  attach  to  fish  indis- 
criminately, but  that  a  given  species  of  mussel  may  make  use 
of  only  certain  species  of  fish,  as  the  pimple-back  mussel  seems 
to  be  generally  restricted  in  parasitism  to  certain  species  of 
catfishes,  and,  a  more  striking  instance,  the  niggerhead  mussel 
restricts  itself  so  far  as  is  known  to  the  river  herring,  or  blue 
herring.  Conditions,  therefore,  which  affect  the  movements  of 
the  river  herring  and  catfish  may  vitally  affect  the  welfare  of 
these  important  mussels." 

It  is  not  here  simply  a  question  as  to  whether  mussels  will 
be  transported  from  below  the  dam  to  the  waters  above.  If  the 
river  herring  is  a  truly  migratory  fish,  going  down  the  river 
in  the  fall  and  ascending  again  in  the  spring  and  if  its  course 
is  so  checked  by  the  interposition  of  a  dam  that  comparatively 
few  find  the  way  into  the  upper  river,  two  results  will  follow : 

(a)  The  fish  will  become  a  rare  species  in  the  upper  river, 
and 

(b)  The  future  generations   of  niggerhead  mussels  will   so 
generally  fail  of  finding  attachment  to  the  only  suitable  fish 
that  successive  broods  will  perish.     With  the  ultimate  death  or 
capture  of  the  old  mussels,  the  species  will  become  extinct  in 
that  portion  of  the  Mississippi  River  lying  above  Keokuk, — 
that  is  to  say,  in  practically  the  entire  Mississippi,   for  the 
mussel    resources    of   the   Mississippi   proper    (tributaries    ex- 
cluded) are  exceedingly  limited  south  of  Keokuk. 

The  usual  "custom"  in  such  matters  will  probably  be  fol- 
lowed here.  There  will  be  no  fishway  until  by  waiting  we  dis- 
cover that  damage  has  been  done  and  then  the  fisheries  will  not 
be  worth  the  making  of  one.  In  19081  the  fisheries  of  the 
Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  in  Iowa,  Minnesota,  northern 
Illinois,  and  Wisconsin  had  a  total  value  of  more  than  $500,000. 
The  value  of  mussels  and  pearls  alone  was  almost  $100,000. 
If  an  annual  $600,000  fisheries  project  is  endangered,  why 
could  not  such  a  sum  reasonably  be  expended  for  a  suitable 
fishway  ? 

i  United  States  Bureau  of  Census,  1911,  "The  Fisheries  of  United  States 
in  1908." 


282  WATER  RESOURCES 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  salmon  stream  should  ever  be  dammed 
without  a  fishway  costing  the  full  annual  value  of  the  fish  if 
necessary.  Salmon  were  extinguished  in  Connecticut  River  by 
a  dam  built  in  1798.  This  also  shut  out  shad  and  alewives. 
The  value  of  the  shad  fisheries  of  the  Delaware  about  this  time 
was  $200,000  per  year.  With  salmon  and  alewives  included, 
the  Connecticut  fisheries  should  have  more  than  doubled  this ; 
an  expense  of  10  per  cent  of  the  annual  value  of  the  fisheries 
could  have  constructed  a  fishway  quite  adequate  for  all  the 
fishes.  The  very  large  one  in  the  Susquehanna  built  in  1873 
cost  only  $11,053.1  It  probably  paid  to  build  this  dam  in  1798, 
but  whom  did  it  pay?  Certainly  not  starving  Europe  in  1918. 

In  general  fisheries  men  have  not  approached  the  question 
of  fishway s  with  bold  adequate  projects  and  river  engineers 
have  taken  little  or  no  notice  of  either  fishes  or  fishways.  In 
1872  Professor  Baird2  said  of  the  cod  fisheries:  "Formerly  the 
waters  abounded  in  this  fish  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
large  rivers.  The  tidal  streams  were  choked  up  with  the  ale- 
wives, shad  and  salmon.  The  erection  of  impassable  dams 
across  the  streams,  by  preventing  the  ascent  to  their  spawning 
grounds,  produced  almost  the  extermination  of  their  numbers. 
The  reduction  in  the  cod  and  other  fishes  so  as  to  become  prac- 
tically a  failure  is  due  to  the  decrease  off  our  coast,  in  the  quan- 
tity of  alewives ;  and  secondarily  of  shad  and  salmon,  more  than 
any  other  cause.  Attention  of  the  legislatures  of  the  New 
England  States  has  been  called  to  this  fact.  However,  the 
lumbering  interests  in  New  Hampshire  and  Massachusetts  are 
so  powerful  as  to  render  it  extremely  difficult  to  carry  out  any 
measures  which  in  any  way  interfere  with  their  convenience  or 
profits,  and  notwithstanding  the  construction  of  fishways 
through  dams,  these  have  either  been  neglected  altogether  or 
are  of  such  a  character  as  not  to  answer  their  purpose." 

FROGS  AND  TURTLES.     Oneida  Lake  (N.  Y.),  which  covers 

1  Atkins,  C.  G.,  "On  Fishways,"  United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and 
Fisheries,  Report  of  Commission  for  1872-73,  Part  II,  591-616,  1873. 

2  Baird,  S.  F.,  "Conclusions  as  to  the  Decrease  of  Cod  Fisheries  on  the 
New   England   Coast,"   United   States   Commission  of   Fish   and    Fisheries, 
Report  of  Commission  for  1872-73,  Part  II,  xi-xiv,  1873. 


RIVER  REGULATION  283 

only  80  square  miles,  produces  $15,000  worth  of  frogs  per  year 
from  a  narrow  margin  around  the  outside.1  The  swamps  and 
marshes  near  all  the  large  cities  produce  quantities  of  these 
animals  but  the  numbers  and  values  are  unknown.  The  legs 
are  used  for  food,  which  constitutes  the  chief  demand,  but  many 
are  in  use  in  scientific  laboratories. 

Turtles  to  the  value  of  $40,000  were  taken  in  the  United 
States  in  1908. 2  These  figures  appear  to  be  quite  incomplete 
or  there  has  been  a  marked  increase  as  the  Louisiana  Conser- 
vation Commission3  reports  from  $100,000  to  $110,000  per  year 
for  Louisiana  alone.  Alligator  skins  valued  at  $61,000  were 
taken  in  the  United  States  in  1908. 

BIRDS.  North  America  possesses  about  two  hundred  species 
of  game  birds  which  are  associated  with  watercourses,  lakes, 
swamps,  and  the  seashore.4  This  number  includes  seventy-four 
species  of  edible  web-footed  fowl.  Sixteen  of  these  have  been 
shown  to  feed  upon  wild  rice,  wild  celery,  and  pond  weeds.5 
These  three  plants  supply  an  average  of  25  per  cent  of  their 
food,  more  than  half  of  which  is  pond  weeds.  They  are  in  part 
dependent  upon  conditions  of  water  suitable  for  these  plants 
which  grow  well  in  waters  not  too  badly  polluted.  They  are 
all  closely  dependent  upon  water  for  breeding. 

Ducks  eat  quantities  of  grasshoppers,  locusts,  cutworms,  and 
marsh  caterpillars.  The  rails  and  coot  have  similar  habits  and 
relations.  All  are  useful  to  the  farmer.  There  are  some  sixty 
species  of  long-legged,  slender-billed  birds,  the  so-called  shore 
birds.0  These  devour  quantities  of  mosquitoes,  horseflies,  etc., 

1  Adams,  C.  C.,  and  Hankinson,  T.  L.,  "Notes  on  Oneida  Lake  Fish  and 
Fisheries"    (transactions  of  American  Fisheries   Society,   XLV,   154,   169), 
1916. 

2  United  States  Bureau  of  Census,  1909,  "The  Fisheries  of  United  States 
in  1908." 

s  Alexander,  M.  L.,  "Biennial  Report  of  the  Department  of  Conservation, 
State  of  Louisiana,  1916-18." 

*  Forbush,  E.  H.,  "Game  Birds,  Wild  Fowl,  and  Shore  Birds,"  Massachu- 
setts Board  of  Agriculture,  1912. 

s  McAttee,  W.  L.,  "Five  Important  Duck  Foods,"  Bulletin  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  No.  58,  1914. 

"Eleven  Important  Duck  Foods,"  I.e.  No.  205,  1915. 

e  McAttee,  W.  L.,  "Our  Vanishing  Shorebirds,"  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Biology,  Arv.  Circular  No.  79. 


284  WATER  RESOURCES 

both  adult  and  larval.  Nearly  all  these  birds  are  very  fond  of 
grasshoppers  and  many  feed  on  weevils,  wireworms,  leaf  beetles, 
and  other  pests  of  the  field.  Many  birds  associated  with  water 
are  useful  to  agriculture  and  their  destruction  ultimately 
results  in  heavy  losses  to  the  farmer  through  the  increase  of 
insects  and  other  pests.  There  are  also  the  birds  hunted  for 
food  and  sport. 

MAMMALS.  The  small  fur-bearing  mammals,  closely  asso- 
ciated with  watercourses — beaver,  muskrats,  skunks,  and 
mink — are  valuable  for  their  furs.  Under  certain  conditions 
some  of  them  are  not  desirable;  as,  for  example,  muskrats1 
where  there  are  dykes,  which  they  sometimes  damage.  The 
skunk2  is  counted  as  a  useful  animal  and  is  fond  of  stream 
margin  thickets.  Its  bad  reputation  for  taking  poultry  is  un- 
founded, based  largely  on  rare  instances  and  on  the  fact  that 
the  European  polecat  from  which  it  gets  its  name  in  some  locali- 
ties, is  a  serious  poultry  pest.  The  value  of  the  furs  of  these 
animals,  except  the  skunk  for  which  statistics  appear  to  be 
wanting,  in  1908  in  the  United  States  exclusive  of  Alaska  was  as 
follows : 

Beaver          .  .  .  .        $  39,000 

Muskrat       .  .  .  .          136,000 

Mink  .  .'•          ..         .  89,000 

WATER  MARGINS.  The  statistics  collected  in  Illinois  show 
that  two-thirds3  of  all  the  birds  valuable  for  eating  insects  and 
which  for  the  most  part  are  not  included  with  the  shore  and 
aquatic  birds,  are  in  some  way  dependent  upon  shrubbery,  such 
as  that  which  grows  on  the  margins  of  watercourses.  The  bob- 
white,  for  example,  breeds  about  thickets  and  is  of  especial 
value  to  the  farmer.  It  has  been  predicted  that  in  the  Middle 
West  where  farmers  are  inclined  to  "clean  up"  the  bushes  and 

1  Lantz,  D.  E.,  "The  Muskrat,"  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin,  I.e.  396,  1910. 

2  Lantz,  D.  E.,  "Economic  Value  of  North  American  Skunks,"   United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin,  I.e.  587,  1914. 

3  Smith,  F.,  "The  Relation  of  Our  Shrubs  and  Trees  to  Our  Wild  Birds," 
1915,  Illinois  Arbor  and  Bird  Days,  Circular  No.  83  (issued  by  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction,  Springfield,  111.),  pp.  8-17. 


RIVER  REGULATION  285 

fence  corners  many  of  the  species  dependent  upon  shrubbery 
will  disappear.  The  tendency  to  destroy  the  thickets,  especially 
on  the  stream  margins,  causes  an  obvious  decrease  of  birds.  A 
good  skirting  of  trees  along  streams  is  also  of  advantage  as  it 
is  conducive  to  the  presence  of  fish,  because  of  the  fact  that 
many  food  fishes  prefer  shade.  Moreover,  it  tends  to  lower 
water  temperature  in  summer,  a  condition  also  favorable  to 
fishes.  The  shade  greatly  increases  recreation  value.  As  a 
rule,  the  lowest  land  along  streams  is  not  useful  for  anything 
but  for  growing  trees  and  shrubs. 

SWAMPS.  Each  plan  of  reconstruction,  involving  an  increase 
in  the  amount  of  land  cultivated  and  designed  to  provide  land 
for  returning  soldiers  and  others,  calls  for  the  draining  of 
swamps.  The  people  who  advocate  this  appear  to  consider  the 
drainage  of  swamps  as  an  unqualified  good.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  of  the  scientists  who  appreciate  the  great  values  in  our 
birds  and  aquatic  resources  and  who  desire  to  see  conditions  for 
scientific  study  preserved,  regard  the  drainage  of  certain 
swamps  as  an  unmitigated  evil.  One  man  has  proposed  the 
preservation  of  the  entire  Everglade  swamp  region.  This  may 
seem  absurd,  but  it  is  not  so  preposterous  as  it  appears,  if  we 
give  full  consideration  to  the  value  of  our  North  American  birds. 
As  destroyers  of  crop  pests,  they  save  millions  of  dollars  in 
crops  every  year. 

Our  southern  swamps  lie  in  the  direct  migration  route  of 
many  species  of  birds  which  are  used  as  food,  or  which  destroy 
crop  pests  farther  north.1  This  is  so  important  that  through 
gifts  and  state  acquisition,  Louisiana  has  set  aside  areas  of 
swampy  land  along  the  southern  coast  to  serve  as  way  stations 
for  migrating  birds  and  as  a  breeding  place  for  the  native 
species.  Thus  swamps  have  a  real  value  from  the  standpoint 
of  birds  alone ;  they  are  not  the  only  animals  found  in  and  about 
marshes,  which  provide  us  with  necessities,  including  food,  furs, 
buttons,  and  other  articles.  The  marshes  and  watercourses 
of  Louisiana  yield  upward  of  $700,000  per  year  in  products 
from  turtles,  furbearing  animals,  and  frogs. 

i  Alexander,  M.  I..,  "Biennial  Report  of  the  Department  of  Conservation, 
State  of  Louisiana,  1916-18." 


286  WATER  RESOURCES 

It  is,  therefore,  reasonable  to  argue  that  no  swamp  in  the 
Gulf  States  or  Georgia  should  be  drained  without  full  consid- 
eration of  these  losses.  Experiment  stations  should  be  estab- 
lished and  at  these  studies  conducted  of  the  means  of  increasing 
the  productivity  of  the  marshes  and  of  controlling  all  the 
present  resources. 

Upland  marshes  also  have  values  similar  to  those  of  the 
coastal  swamps  and  an  additional  and  important  function. 
With  the  clearing  off  of  timber  and  the  draining  of  such  swamps 
the  streams  appear  to  be  subject  to  greater  floods  and  to  more 
extreme  low  water.  The  latter  conditions  in  particular  are 
important  in  connection  with  the  effects  of  pollution.  It  is  at 
extreme  low  stages  that  the  streams  are  overloaded  and  that 
a  small  amount  of  pollution  overtaxes  the  self-purification 
mechanisms,  with  results  almost  as  disastrous  to  fishes  and 
similar  animals  as  if  the  low  water  occurred  throughout  the 
year. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  of  the  necessity  of  building 
dams  from  which  water  could  be  slowly  released  in  dry  seasons 
to  maintain  flow.  It  may  well  be  asked,  Why  then  destroy  the 
upland  marshes  which  serve  as  reservoirs  or  as  great  sponges 
holding  water  and  letting  it  out  gradually?  Xeedham  and 
Lloyd1  advocate  lowering  parts  of  these  below  permanent  water 
level  and  putting  the  soil  thus  removed  on  equal  areas.  The 
dry  land  could  be  used  for  agriculture  and  the  ponds  for  water 
culture.  Though  the  science  of  aquiculture  is  as  yet  in  its  in- 
fancy, yet  it  appears  that  water  may  be  made  as  productive 
as  land. 

A  part  of  any  large  swamp  such  as  the  Okefmokee  Swamp  or 
any  other  natural  area  may  be  as  valuable  as  the  most  expen- 
sive American  museum,  one  which  requires,  say,  $10,000,000 
endowment  and  $500,000  annual  expense.  Such  swamps  are 
really  museums  of  living  things,  the  value  of  which  at  any  time 
may  become  infinitely  great  in  the  solution  of  important  scien- 
tific problems  which  involve  living  animals.  Each  year  animals 
and  plants  find  new  uses  and  new  values ;  no  one  would  have 

i  Needham,  ,T.  G.,  and  Lloyd,  J.  T.,  "Life  of  the  Inland  Waters,"  Ithaca, 
1916. 


RIVER  REGULATION  287 

thought  white  rats,  guinea  pigs,  and  common  mice  worth  saving 
a  century  ago.  If  the  question  of  sacrificing  all  these  for  a 
little  additional  land  to  cultivate  had  been  raised  it  would  have 
received  but  one  answer,  there  would  be  none  of  these  animals 
now.  Yet  by  far  the  greater  part  of  our  laws  of  immunity 
from  disease,  heredity  of  cancer,  as  well  as  of  heredity  in  general 
have  been  or  are  still  being  worked  out  on  them.  The  invest- 
ment in  equipment  and  salaries  for  such  investigation  amounts 
to  millions  of  dollars  every  year.  Preserves  of  our  native  flora 
and  fauna  are  more  important  than  museums  of  dead  animals. 
To  quote  a  recent  writer  on  water  culture :  "We  urge  that  water 
areas,  adequate  to  our  future  needs  for  study  and  experiment 
be  set  apart  and  forever  kept  free  from  the  depredations  of  the 
exploiter  and  of  the  engineer."1 

AQUATIC  PLANTS.  These  are  not  without  value ;  in  aboriginal 
times  a  number  of  rushes  of  different  sorts  were  used  for  making 
coarse  mats  and  other  suitable  articles.  In  recent  years  the 
leaves  of  the  narrow  leaved  cat-tail  have  been  employed  in  paper 
making  and  in  cooperage.  In  the  latter  industry  the  leaves 
are  placed  between  the  staves  of  the  barrels,  where  they  swell 
when  wet  and  render  the  joints  water  tight. 

Water  plants,  notably  wild  rice,  supplied  food  to  the  Ameri- 
can Indians.  This  is  obtainable  at  the  present  time  in  our  own 
markets  in  limited  quantity  and  at  fancy  prices.  Hedrick,2 
who  has  advocated  the  increase  of  food  supply  by  multiplying 
the  variety  of  crops,  has  stated  the  uses  of  several  aquatic 
plants :  "In  China  and  Japan  the  cormbs  or  tubers  of  a  species 
of  Sagittaria  (arrow  head)  are  commonly  sold  for  food.  There 
are  several  American  species,  one  of  which  at  least  was  used 
wherever  found  by  the  Indians,  and  under  the  name  arrow 
head,  swan  potato  and  swamp  potato  has  given  welcome  suste- 
nance to  pioneers.  Our  native  lotus,  a  species  of  Nelumbo,  was 
much  prized  by  the  aborigines,  seeds,  roots,  and  stalks  being 
eaten.  Sagittaria  and  Nelumbo  furnish  starting  points  for 

1  Needham,  J.  G.,  and  Lloyd,  J.  T.,  "Life  of  the  Inland  Waters,"  Ithaca, 
1916. 

2  Hedrick,  U.  P.,  "Multiplying  Crops  as  a  Means  of  Increasing  the  Future 
Food  Supply,"  Science,  40:611-620. 


288  WATER  RESOURCES 

valuable  food  plants  for  countless  numbers  of  acres  of  water- 
covered  marshes  when  the  need  to  utilize  these  now  waste  places 
becomes  pressing."  Research  on  the  cultivation  of  these  should 
have  been  started  long  ago. 

BRACKISH  WATERS.  The  fringing  seacoast  marshes  have 
their  uses  and  before  any  large  areas  of  brackish  or  salt  marsh 
are  reclaimed  by  dyking,  careful  investigation  of  water  cultural 
possibilities  should  be  conducted.  The  marshes  are  suitable 
for  the  rapidly  declining  culture  of  the  terrapin,  the  catch  of 
which  for  the  entire  United  States  in  1908  was  valued  at 
$80,000.  Methods  of  culture  must  be  developed  by  careful 
study  and  research,  which  must  begin  almost  at  the  foundation. 

The  low  wet  areas  along  the  New  Jersey  coast  have  been 
notorious  for  the  mosquito  pests.  The  increase  of  these  in 
recent  years  has  been  attributed  to  the  decrease  of  shore  birds 
and  water  fowl  which  frequent  the  marshes,  as  many  of  these 
birds  feed  on  the  insects.  To  compensate  in  part  for  this  loss 
of  bird  life  and  to  perfect  the  control  of  the  mosquitoes,  systems 
of  ditches  have  been  provided  by  which  small  fishes,  the  killi- 
fishes,  are  enabled  to  get  at  and  devour  the  larvae  and  pupae. 
During  the  war  of  1917-18,  the  munition  works  discharged 
a  mixture  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  into  these  waters,  which 
repelled  the  killifishes  and  largely  destroyed,  locally  at  least, 
the  effects  of  the  ditching  work. 

SALT  WATER  PROBLEMS.  The  sea  and  its  shallows  are  highly 
productive  of  human  food  ;*  the  cultivated  mussel  beds  of  Con- 
way  produce  8,600  pounds  of  flesh  per  acre,  while  the  produc- 
tivity of  land  in  beef  is  about  one-ninth  of  this.  The  dry  mussel 
flesh  is  about  six-tenths  of  the  dry  organic  matter  produced  in 
grain  from  the  same  area  of  land.  Investigation  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  food  culture  of  the  sea  should  be  greatly  extended. 
There  are  many  marine  animals  not  ordinarily  eaten  which  are 
excellent  food,  and  efforts  to  extend  the  number  and  variety  of 
these  on  our  bills  of  fare  should  continue. 

The  pollution  of  the  sea  is  quite  extensive  near  our  populous 
areas.  The  most  widely  known  of  these  destructive  effects  is 

i  Johnstone,  J.,  "Conditions  of  Life  in  the  Sea,"  Cambridge,  1908. 


RIVER  REGULATION  289 

the  contamination  of  shellfish  beds  and  bathing  beaches  with 
typhoid.  To  prevent  this,  Winslow  and  Mohlman1  have  pro- 
posed the  sterilization  of  the  New  Haven  sewage.  In  comment- 
ing on  the  adverse  report  on  the  adoption  of  the  plan  for  treat- 
ment of  Boston  sewage,  they  say  that  such  calculations  fail  to 
put  a  value  on  sterile  media  for  bathing  beaches  and  oyster  beds. 

Such  a  sterilizing  process  should  render  possible  the  recovery 
of  the  valuable  substances  contained  in  sewage,  and  at  the  same 
time  increase  the  probabilities  of  the  return  of  marine  fishes 
and  shellfish  to  the  vicinity  of  large  cities  and  towns  where  now 
the  raw  sewage  prevents.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  those  who  see 
only  the  profits  to  be  gained  from  the  sale  of  recovered  products 
may  be  persuaded  to  advocate  the  introduction  of  proper 
processes  wherever  practicable  on  the  ground  not  only  of  the 
abatement  of  nuisance  and  benefits  to  public  health,  but  also 
of  the  probable  benefits  to  fisheries. 

There  are  notable  gains  to  the  public  to  be  had  in  the  removal 
of  typhoid  danger  in  sea  products,  the  increase  of  area  usable 
for  shellfish  and  the  lessening  of  the  liability  of  reducing  the 
breeding  grounds  of  fishes  and  of  hindering  their  onshore  runs. 
The  history  of  the  herring  industry  is  interesting  in  this  con- 
nection. Numerous  breeding  grounds,  some  of  them  near  pros- 
perous cities,  have  been  deserted  and  as  a  result  the  population 
of  these  has  diminished.  Experiments  have  shown  that  herring 
avoid  slight  increases  in  acidity  and  also  water  slightly  deficient 
in  oxygen  as  may  result  from  sewage.  It  is  not  known  whether 
or  not  these  pollutions  caused  herring  to  avoid  their  usual 
spawning  places,  but  it  is  true  that  such  conditions  are  not 
favorable  to  runs  of  herring.  One  fact  stands  out  clearly, 
namely,  that  many  species  of  marine  animals  are  much  more 
sensitive  than  fresh  water  ones.  This  is  in  opposition  to  the 
fallacy  that  the  sea  is  so  large  that  sewage  and  other  pollutions 
can  have  little  effect. 

COOPERATIVE  RESEARCH.  From  lack  of  knowledge  or  through 
carelessness  there  has  resulted  continually  recurring  destruc- 
tion of  various  natural  agencies,  each  working  in  part  toward 

i  Winslow,  C.-E.  A.,  and  Mohlman,  F.  W.,  "Acid  Treatment  of  Sewage," 
Municipal  Journal,  1918,  45:280-282,  29T-299,  321-322. 


290  WATER  RESOURCES 

the  good  of  mankind.  There  has  been  study  of  some  of  these 
agencies  and  resources,  but  the  results  obtained  by  private 
organizations  or  by  individual  effort  are  scattered.  The  work 
of  our  governmental  bureaus  has  often  fallen  into  ruts  which 
have  cramped  the  individual  initiative  of  the  investigators.  In 
our  present  system,  as  pointed  out  by  Senator  Newlands,  page 
270,  the  bureaus  are  usually  separate  and  are  often  ignorant 
of  the  work  of  each  other  or  are  competing  usually  in  ways  not 
based  on  the  logical  requirements  of  the  problems  to  be  solved. 
The  complete  organization  as  proposed  by  the  Act  of  August 
8,  1917,  should  be  such  that  a  complete  force  of  investigators 
can  be  put  to  work  on  a  given  problem.  What  should  be  done 
with  this  or  that  stream,  lake  or  swamp?  It  is  not  a  problem 
for  engineers  alone.  There  should  be  a  careful  study  not  only 
of  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  water,  but  also  of  the  possible 
related  values  in  fish,  game,  furs,  birds,  wood,  lumber,  and  all 
other  products. 

Engineers,  physicists,  chemists,  and  ecologists  (who  deal  with 
the  fine  adjustments  of  organisms  to  each  other  and  to  condi- 
tions) should  constitute  a  cooperative  organization  which,  like 
an  army,  undertakes  to  advance  by  working  together  for  the 
general  good  of  humanity.  Our  laws  relative  to  riparian  rights, 
like  those  of  England,  which  caused  the  destruction  of  the 
salmon  of  the  Mersey,  do  not  make  possible  the  application  to 
streams  and  their  margins  of  the  best  measures  for  the  general 
good.  The  laws  should  be  improved  and  campaigns  of  educa- 
tion inaugurated.  There  is  need  of  putting  our  aquatic  re- 
sources on  a  permanent  basis.  As  in  the  case  of  other  natural 
resources,  there  has  been  too  much  fish  "mining,"  mussel 
"mining,"  i.e.,  too  much  of  the  tendency  to  take  all  and  go  to 
the  next  place  or  the  next  product,  and  not  enough  "farming" 
of  these  resources.  Why  with  all  our  immense  rivers  should  we 
import  mussels  from  China?  Is  it  not  better  to  work  out  a 
basis  for  a  permanent  supply  from  our  own  waters?  Here 
research  is  necessary;  we  know  little  or  nothing  about  what 
portion  of  the  individuals  of  any  species  can  be  removed  each 
year  and  leave  the  supply  permanent  and  under  the  best  con- 
ditions. Opportunities  to  develop  water  culture  projects  in 


RIVER  REGULATION  291 

connection  with  the  building  of  reservoirs  or  of  undertakings 
for  the  reclamation  of  swamps  and  the  protection  of  agricul- 
tural land  from  overflow  should  be  given  more  consideration  than 
in  the  past. 

The  ultimate  effects  of  building  levees  along  the  rivers  in 
order  to  confine  the  floods  within  restricted  channels  should  also 
be  given  thorough  research.  There  has  been  too  great  reliance 
placed  on  tradition  or  on  text-book  assertions  as  to  the  be- 
havior of  the  rivers  which  have  thus  been  artificially  controlled. 
In  particular,  attention  has  been  called  by  Colonel  C.  McD. 
Townsend,  president  of  the  Mississippi  River  Commission,  to 
the  current  fallacies  regarding  the  raising  of  the  beds  of  certain 
rivers  as  a  result  of  levees  built  along  them,  shutting  off  access 
of  flood  waters  to  the  ancient  flood  plains  or  marsh  lands. 

He  states  that  those  who  advocate  the  theory  that  levee  con- 
struction raises  the  river  bed,  usually  give  as  an  illustration 
the  river  Po,  and  quote  a  statement  which  appears  to  have 
originated  in  Prony's  "Recherches  sur  le  system  hydraulic  de 
1'Italia,"  adopted  by  Cuvier  in  his  "Discours  sur  les  revolution 
de  la  surface  du  globe,"  who  added  that  the  floods  of  the  Po 
exceeded  in  height  the  roofs  of  the  houses  of  Ferrera ;  and  that 
only  by  the  opening  of  new  river  channels  in  the  lowlying  lands 
which  were  formed  by  their  ancient  deposits,  could  disasters  be 
averted.  These  statements  have  been  repeated  in  recent  works 
on  geology  and  geography. 

The  Italian  engineer,  Lombardini,  refutes  these  statements ; 
the  investigations  by  French,  German  and  Austrian  engineers 
have  resulted  in  the  conclusion  that  the  effect  of  levees  in  raising 
the  river  bed  in  no  case  is  more  than  a  few  inches  in  a  hundred 
years,  and  may  be  termed  a  geological  effect  resulting  from  the 
lengthening  of  the  river  as  it  deposits  its  silt  at  its  mouth. 
Two  reports  on  the  river  Po  exhaustively  discuss  the  same 
subject;  viz.,  that  in  1905,  of  a  board  appointed  by  the  Italian 
Government,  and  a  paper  by  G.  Fantoli  in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Italian  Society  for  the  Progress  of  Science  (Geneva,  Octo- 
ber, 1912)  entitled  "II  Po  nelle  effemeridi  di  un  Secolo." 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
LEGAL  AND  LEGISLATIVE  PROBLEMS 

VESTED  RIGHTS.  In  any  discussion  of  the  conservation  and 
use  of  natural  resources  and  especially  of  water  storage,  it  is 
necessary  to  consider  not  only  the  physical  conditions,  but 
more  than  this,  to  have  clearly  in  mind  the  economic  limitations 
and  also  the  artificial  relations  established  by  law.  If  the 
entire  country  was  in  the  state  of  nature  and  the  engineer 
could  freely  pick  out  the  localities  where  water  might  best  be 
used  or  stored  and  could  sweep  away  all  obstacles  erected  by 
man,  the  problem  would  be  relatively  simple.  He  finds,  how- 
ever, that  even  in  a  relatively  new  country  innumerable  so- 
called  "vested  rights"  have  already  attached  to  the  water,  and 
that  property  lines,  as  well  as  state  and  county  boundaries, — 
drawn  without  reference  to  natural  conditions, — block  his  way 
at  every  turn.  These  invisible  walls,  because  of  their  intangible 
form,  are  often  more  difficult  to  penetrate  than  the  solid  rocks 
of  the  mountains,  where  tunnels  may  be  driven  through  in  the 
course  of  a  few  months.  It  may  require  years  or  may  be  prac- 
tically impossible  to  put  through  a  meritorious  project  which 
is  obstructed  by  the  vaguely  defined  rights  or  limitations  set  by 
laws  and  court  decisions.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  engineer  and 
of  the  promoter  to  know  all  that  he  can  of  these  laws  so  that 
he  may  not  become  entangled  in  them. 

Each  of  the  forty-eight  states  of  the  Federal  Union  has  its 
own  system  of  laws.  In  some  of  these  a  water  code  has  been 
carefully  considered;  in  others,  chaos  apparently  exists  and 
development  of  the  water  resources  is  effectively  blocked  because 
of  the  existing  uncertainty.  Taking  the  states  as  a  whole,  how- 
ever, it  may  be  said  that  there  are  two  radically  different  sys- 
tems in  legislation  and  in  court  decisions.  The  first  is  that  of 
the  older  states,  which  for  the  most  part  took  their  legal  codes 


LEGAL  AND  LEGISLATIVE  PROBLEMS        293 

from  England,  and  which  recognize  the  so-called  riparian  rights 
which  require  that  the  natural  streams  be  permitted  to  flow 
undisturbed  in  quantity  and  unchanged  in  quality.  In  the 
other  group  of  states  are  those  of  the  arid  west  where  the  neces- 
sity of  the  people  demands  that  the  water  be  taken  from  the 
streams  and  used  more  or  less  completely  in  the  production  of 
crops.  Here  the  so-called  doctrine  of  appropriation  has  met 
the  common  needs  of  the  people  better  than  the  riparian  rights 
of  the  older  states  based  on  the  common  law  of  England. 

Throughout  the  arid  region,  as  a  rule,  there  is  more  land 
than  water.  In  other  words,  the  extent  to  which  the  dry  but 
otherwise  productive  land  can  be  put  to  use  is  governed  by  the 
care  and  skill  employed  in  conserving  and  utilizing  the  limited 
amount  of  water  available.  The  question  may  thus  be  asked 
as  to  the  duties  of  citizenship  with  respect  to  the  control  of 
water.  Is  it  a  substance  whose  full  ownership  may  be  acquired 
by  an  individual  and  used  or  wasted  according  to  the  desires 
of  that  person? 

In  the  case  of  waters  which  are  abstracted  from  flowing 
streams  and  held  in  a  tank  or  artificial  reservoir,  it  is  usually 
conceded  that  the  man  who  thus  obtains  possession  of  this  defi- 
nite quantity  is  the  owner  and  may  dispose  of  the  water  as  he 
would  of  other  merchandise,  but  in  the  case  of  flowing  streams 
the  conditions  are  different.  The  stream  itself  may  remain  in 
a  definite  position  throughout  all  times,  but  the  component 
parts,  the  individual  particles  of  water  coming  from  the  rain- 
fall on  the  highlands,  are  continually  being  renewed — flowing 
down  the  slopes  they  disappear  into  the  lakes  or  ocean  or  go 
back  into  the  atmosphere.  Under  these  conditions  there  have 
arisen  at  least  two  theories  concerning  ownership  of  the  flowing 
waters.  These  owe  their  difference  to  the  contrasting  conditions 
in  the  country  in  which  the  legal  theories  arose. 

RIPARIAN  RIGHTS.  In  humid  England  and  in  the  nearly 
equally  humid  parts  of  eastern  United  States,  water  is  usually 
in  excess  and  its  intrinsic  value  is  thus  little  appreciated.  It 
may  be  regarded  more  as  a  nuisance  than  an  essential  element 
of  life.  The  man  who  acquired  title  to  a  piece  of  land  bordering 
upon  a  stream  or  through  which  a  stream  flowed  came  to  be 


294  WATER  RESOURCES 

recognized  as  having  a  certain  right  to  the  use  of  the  waters 
of  the  stream.  His  land  ownership  was  usually  bounded  by  the 
center  of  the  stream  or  by  its  deepest  flowing  channel.  By  the 
purchase  of  the  land,  he  acquired  the  right  to  use  the  water 
and  to  enjoy  certain  privileges,  these  being  limited  by  equiva- 
lent rights  of  the  landowners  above  and  below  him  on  the 
stream.  Thus  in  countries  where  water  was  plenty  there  grew 
up  the  conception  that  the  riparian  owner  could  utilize  the 
water  so  long  as  he  did  not  interfere  with  the  quantity  and 
with  the  quality  of  the  water  which  passed  beyond  his  land  to 
that  of  other  riparian  proprietors. 

In  the  case  of  larger  rivers  or  lakes,  the  ownership  of  land 
covered  by  water  was  considered  as  being  in  the  state  and  the 
riparian  ownership  extended  to  high-water  or  low-water  mark, 
but  with  certain  privileges  adherent  in  the  fact  that  the  land 
was  bounded  by  the  water  surface.  The  principal  causes  of 
controversy  under  these  conditions  would  be  those  arising  from 
attempts  to  develop  water  power  and  to  build  dams,  flooding 
back  upon  the  lands  further  upstream.  In  these  cases  the 
matter  was  usually  left  to  private  arrangements  although  in 
some  states  flowage  rights  might  be  acquired  by  legal  pro- 
cesses. 

APPROPRIATION.  In  the  Mediterranean  countries  of  Europe 
and  in  the  arid  western  parts  of  the  United  States,  where,  with 
scarcity  of  water,  most  lands  and  industries,  as  well  as  life 
itself,  are  intimately  connected  with  the  water  supply,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  a  different  rule  must  be  enforced.  The  very  exist- 
ence of  agriculture  depends  upon  taking  away  from  the  streams 
an  ample  supply  for  the  production  of  crops.  In  the  aggre- 
gate this  removal  of  water  means  the  complete  drying  up  of 
the  streams  and  deprivation  of  lower  riparian  owners  of  its  use. 
Obviously  it  is  impossible  for  each  riparian  owner  to  enjoy  the 
use  of  the  water  by  taking  out  a  portion  onto  his  land  and  at 
the  same  time  permit  it  to  flow  undiminished  in  quantity  and 
unchanged  in  quality.  Hence  has  grown  up  the  doctrine  of 
appropriation.  Riparian  rights  as  far  as  the  arid  states  are 
concerned  have  usually  been  declared  to  be  nonexistent.  The 
men  who  first  took  water  from  a  flowing  stream  and  applied  it 


LEGAL  AND  LEGISLATIVE  PROBLEMS        295 

to  beneficial  use  are  thereafter  protected  in  such  use  in  the  order 
of  their  dates  of  appropriation  and  use,  or  of  so-called  priority, 
and  to  the  amount  actually  utilized. 

The  ownership  of  the  water  in  the  arid  region  has  usually 
been  declared  to  be  in  the  people  or  in  some  instances  in  the 
state.  The  right  to  use,  as  distinguished  from  ownership,  is 
vested  in  the  various  claimants  in  the  sequence  in  which  they 
first  applied  this  water  to  beneficial  use.  Each  of  the  western 
states  has  adopted  various  modifications  of  these  fundamental 
ideas.  In  the  case  of  California,  there  is  still  some  doubt  as  to 
the  theory  which  will  ultimately  be  upheld. 

It  is  sufficient  to  call  attention  to  these  two  apparently 
antagonistic  views  and  to  the  uncertainties  which  necessarily 
prevail  in  many  parts  of  the  country  because  of  lack  of  agree- 
ment on  fundamentals.  It  is  claimed  that  more  money  is  being 
and  has  been  expended  in  some  of  the  western  states  in  litigation 
over  the  right  to  the  use  of  water  than  in  the  building  of  the 
necessary  works.  There  is  no  one  matter  more  essential  in  the 
complete  development  of  the  resources  of  an  arid  region  through 
water  conservation  by  storage  than  the  firm  establishment  of 
principles  regarding  the  use  of  waters  and  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  this  use  must  be  safeguarded  in  the  interest  of  all  the 
people. 

POLITICAL  RELATIONS.  A  right  social  and  mental  attitude 
on  the  part  of  the  public  is  necessary  for  success  in  water  con- 
servation and  use.  While  in  the  past  the  engineers  have  con- 
centrated efforts  largely  on  the  physical  conditions,  there  is 
a  rapidly  growing  appreciation  of  the  fact  that  these  leaders 
must  take  into  account  wider  forces  and  must  adapt  their  plans 
not  merely  to  public  needs  but  to  the  probabilities  of  these 
needs  being  understood  and  appreciated.  The  public  directly 
or  indirectly  pays  for  work  of  this  kind  and  is  supposed  to  get 
the  benefit.  Failure  to  obtain  such  benefit  or  to  carry  out  the 
plans  of  the  engineer  to  their  full  completion  usually  results 
from  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  public,  such  ignorance  as 
may  be  removed,  if  at  all,  by  the  proper  use  of  the  larger  knowl- 
edge possessed  by  the  engineer  and  his  associates.  This  fact 
that  the  political,  as  well  as  the  physical  conditions,  must  be 


296  WATER  RESOURCES 

given  full  study  by  the  engineer,  too  often  has  been  overlooked. 
In  fact,  many  a  good  engineer  has  rather  prided  himself  upon 
the  fact  that  he  has  given  no  thought  to  the  political  or  social 
relations  of  the  work.  As  a  consequence  many  a  practicable 
and  desirable  scheme  of  conservation  has  been  wrecked  soon 
after  its  conception. 

It  is  generally  understood  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  engineer 
to  utilize  the  forces  of  nature  for  the  benefit  of  mankind.  With 
the  growing  complication  of  modern  life  the  successful  engineer 
must  include  among  these  forces  those  which  arise  from  the 
human  relationship.  The  storms  of  sentiment  or  of  prejudice 
with  corresponding  decrease  in  confidence  may  be  as  destructive 
to  a  well-planned  work  as  is  the  wind  or  flood.  The  engineer 
in  making  his  plans  should  take  these  into  account,  otherwise 
he  may  be  swept  off  his  feet  at  the  critical  time. 

In  the  United  States  or  in  any  other  form  of  popular  govern- 
ment, all  consideration  of  water  conservation  by  storage  must 
necessarily  arise  from  some  public  or  political  organization. 
From  the  nature  of  the  case,  there  can  be  few,  if  any?  strictly 
private  enterprises ;  even  these  may  require  the  exercise  of  some 
form  of  public  control  of  the  improvement  or  of  the  right  of 
condemnation  for  public  uses.  Thus  nearly  every  enterprise 
involving  storage  necessitates  approval  by  some  public  official 
or  commission.  In  the  exercise  of  its  functions  also  there  is 
probability  of  coming  within  the  range  of  state  or  federal  laws 
governing  public  utilities. 

INTERSTATE  ACTIVITIES.  The  boundaries  of  each  of  the 
forty-eight  states  were  originally  drawn  with  little  or  no  refer- 
ence to  topography  or  to  the  watershed  of  the  principal  rivers 
of  the  country.  Some  of  the  states  are  limited  in  part  by  the 
center  of  navigable  channels  or  by  the  low-water  mark  of  a 
river ;  but  for  the  most  part  the  boundaries  are  supposed  to  be 
straight  lines  drawn  from  a  given  point  and  extending  west  or 
north  to  intersect  with  some  other  line.  It  thus  results  that 
there  are  few  rivers  of  importance  which  lie  wholly  within  any 
one  state.  The  principal  exception  is  in  the  case  of  Texas,  the 
largest  state  in  the  Union,  involving  nearly  one-tenth  of  the 
total  area  of  the  United  States.  This  has  wholly  within  its 


LEGAL  AND  LEGISLATIVE  PROBLEMS        297 

area  the  Colorado  River  (of  Texas,  not  the  Colorado  River  of 
the  West)  and  some  smaller  streams.  In  California,  also,  the 
Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  lie  within  the  state  lines.  It 
would  be  practicable  to  create  a  conservancy  district  wholly 
within  a  state  on  rivers  such  as  these ;  but  even  in  such  instances, 
there  would  be  involved  some  consideration  of  federal  laws  in 
working  out  a  scheme  of  conservation  because  of  the  effect 
which  would  be  produced  on  the  navigable  portion  of  the 
stream. 

The  majority  of  river  conservancy  problems  thus  involve 
the  jurisdiction  of  two  or  more  states  as  well  as  that  of  the 
federal  government  in  matters  of  navigation.  Here  has  been 
a  great  obstacle  to  full  hydro-economic  development.  Usually 
the  heads  of  a  stream  where  water  can  best  be  held  are  located 
in  mountainous  areas  and  in  a  different  state  from  the  lands 
or  property  benefited  by  the  proposed  storage.  To  make  any 
enterprise  feasible,  there  must  be  laws  passed  in  the  two  or 
more  states  sufficiently  uniform  in  character  to  permit  opera- 
tion. The  difficulty  of  securing  such  laws  can  only  be  appre- 
ciated by  persons  who  have  attempted  to  get  two  or  more  state 
legislatures  to  act  in  unison.  Whatever  one  legislature  agrees 
upon  the  other  frequently  rejects! 

FEDERAL  FUNDS.  The  largest  opportunities  for  development 
of  water  conservation  and  use,  exclusive  of  operations  under 
the  Reclamation  Act,  are  those  which  flow  out  of  federal  legis- 
lation for  the  improvement  and  maintenance  of  commerce  on 
the  rivers  of  the  United  States.  Under  present  conditions,  a 
bill  is  annually  reported  to  Congress  involving  an  expenditure 
of  $40,000,000  more  or  less  for  continuation  of  the  work  already 
authorized,  for  maintaining  the  works  which  have  been  built, 
and  for  making  surveys  of  new  projects.  The  custom  has  arisen, 
as  previously  noted,  of  preparing  the  items  of  the  bill  in 
geographic  order  and  thus  mentioning  practically  every  con- 
gressional district.  The  bill  thus  includes  not  only  items  for  the 
deepening  of  harbors  and  of  connecting  waters  in  the  Great 
Lakes  where  results  are  essential  to  commerce,  but  also  brings 
in  innumerable  items  for  expenditures  on  creeks  or  little  rivers 
where  navigation  is  generally  recognized  as  being  impracticable. 


298  WATER  RESOURCES 

The  assumption  is  made  in  preparing  the  bill  that  every  part 
of  the  United  States  should  have  its  share  of  the  expenditure — 
irrespective  of  the  real  needs — under  the  idea  that  the  members 
of  Congress  will  not  vote  funds  for  the  larger  works  of  public 
importance,  but  which  lie  outside  of  their  districts,  unless  each 
man  receives  his  share. 

This  low  order  of  public  morals  is  shown  not  only  in  the  river 
and  harbor  bills,  but  in  public  building  bills  and  various  appro- 
priations for  federal  works.  The  precedent  has  been  so  gener- 
ally established  that  the  average  member  of  Congress  regards 
this  as  a  matter  of  fact.  He  does  not  dare  to  brave  the  indig- 
nation or  ridicule  of  his  colleagues  by  objecting.  His  con- 
stituents also  demand  that  he  get  his  share  and  secure  an  amount 
in  excess  of  that  obtained  by  his  predecessors.  It  is  encour- 
aging, however,  to  see  that  the  public  sentiment,  long  dormant 
regarding  such  matters,  is  awakening  to  the  need  of  a  true 
budget  system  and  is  responding  although  slowly  to  the  pro- 
tests of  men  who  have  the  courage  to  denounce  the  "pork 
barrel"  methods  and  to  expose  these  to  the  public  gaze.  One 
of  the  men  whose  name  stands  foremost  for  patriotic  devotion 
to  higher  ideals  is  that  of  former  Senator  Theodore  E.  Burton 
of  Ohio,  one  of  the  best-informed  men  concerning  water  trans- 
portation, as  he  gave  a  lifetime  to  the  study  of  this  both  in  the 
United  States  and  abroad.  His  courageous  attacks  have 
awakened  others  and  he  has  succeeded  at  least  in  calling  public 
attention  to  the  reprehensible  conditions. 

Senator  Burton  began  his  fight  against  the  corrupt  methods 
of  river  and  harbor  legislation  while  he  was  in  the  House  of 
Representatives.  He  continued  this  in  the  Senate  during  his 
term.  In  the  House  of  Representatives  the  work  was  taken  up 
by  James  A.  Frear  of  Wisconsin. 

"The  cohesive  power  of  public  plunder'1  has  been  frequently 
commented  upon  (see  the  Engineering  News,  Vol.  75,  June  8, 
1916,  page  1098).  It  is  shown  that  the  River  and  Harbor 
Bill,  which  carried  appropriations  of  about  $40,000,000,  al- 
though passed  by  the  Senate  was  favored  by  a  small  majority. 
The  number  of  senators  opposing  is  indicative  of  the  steady 
growth  of  public  opinion.  Emphasis  was  placed  upon  the  fact 


LEGAL  AND  LEGISLATIVE  PROBLEMS        299 

that  the  senators  who  led  the  fight  against  the  bill  are  in  hearty 
favor  of  works  where  expenditure  is  justified  by  actual  benefits. 
WATERWAYS  COMMISSION.  While  a  vigorous  fight  has  been 
waged  in  the  House  of  Representatives  and  Senate  against  the 
corrupting  features  of  the  river  and  harbor  bills,  there  have 
been  various  attempts  made  to  secure  constructive  action  and 
to  outline  a  patriotic  policy  to  replace  the  rule  of  plunder. 
President  Roosevelt,  appreciating  the  situation  and  finding  that 
Congress  as  a  whole  was  unsympathetic  in  such  reforms, 
appointed  on  March  14,  1907,  a  commission  to  prepare  and 
report  a  comprehensive  plan  for  the  improvement  and  control 
of  river  systems  of  the  United  States.  He  stated  that  in 
creating  this  Commission  he  was  influenced  by  broad  considera- 
tion and  national  policy.  "The  control  of  our  navigable  water- 
ways lies  with  the  federal  government  and  carries  with  it  corre- 
sponding responsibilities  and  obligations."1  This  Commission 
held  many  conferences  and  visited  some  of  the  more  important 
navigable  rivers.  It  prepared  a  preliminary  report  which  was 
transmitted  to  Congress  by  President  Roosevelt  on  February 
26,  1908.  The  President  sums  up  the  general  findings  in  the 
following  abstract  taken  from  his  letter: 

"The  report  (of  the  Inland  Waterways  Commission)  rests 
throughout  on  the  fundamental  conception  that  every  waterway 
should  be  made  to  serve  the  people  as  largely  and  in  as  many  differ- 
ent ways  as  possible.  It  is  poor  business  to  develop  a  river  for 
navigation  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  its  use  for  power,,  when  by  a 
little  foresight  it  could  be  made  to  serve  both  purposes.  We  cannot 
afford  needlessly  to  sacrifice  power  to  irrigation,  or  irrigation  to 
domestic  water  supply,  when  by  taking  thought  we  may  have  all 
three.  Every  stream  should  be  used  to  the  utmost.  No  stream  can 
be  so  used  unless  such  use  is  planned  for  in  advance.  When  such 
plans  are  made  we  shall  find  that,  instead  of  interfering,  one  use 
can  often  be  made  to  assist  another.  Each  river  svstem,  from  its 
headwaters  in  the  forest  to  its  mouth  on  the  coast,  is  a  single  unit 
and  should  be  treated  as  such.  Navigation  of  the  lower  reaches  of 

i  For  chairman  of  this  Commission  he  designated  Senator  Burton,  and 
as  members,  Senators  Newlands  and  Warner,  Senator  (then  Representa- 
tive) Bankhead,  Gen.  Alexander  Mackenzie,  Chief  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers, 
United  States  Army,  and  Messrs.  W  J  McGee,  F.  H.  Newell,  Gifford 
Pinchot,  and  Herbert  Knox  Smith. 


300  WATER  RESOURCES 

a  stream  cannot  be  fully  developed  without  the  control  of  floods 
and  low  waters  by  storage  and  drainage.  Navigable  channels  are 
directly  concerned  with  the  protection  of  source  waters  and  with 
soil  erosion,  which  takes  the  materials  for  bars  and  shoals  from 
the  richest  portions  of  our  farms.  The  uses  of  a  stream  for  domestic 
and  municipal  water  supply,  for  power,  and  in  many  cases  for 
irrigation,  must  also  be  taken  into  full  account.  .  .  . 

"The  various  uses  of  waterways  are  now  dealt  with  by  Bureaus 
scattered  through  four  Federal  Departments.  At  present,  there- 
fore, it  is  not  possible  to  deal  with  a  river  system  as  a  single  prob- 
lem. But  the  Commission  here  recommends  a  policy  under  which 
all  the  commercial  and  industrial  uses  of  the  waterways  may  be 
developed  at  the  same  time. 

"The  report  justly  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  hitherto  our 
national  policy  has  been  one  of  almost  unrestricted  disposition  and 
waste  of  natural  resources,  and  emphasizes  the  fundamental  neces- 
sity for  conserving  these  resources  upon  which  our  present  and 
future  success  as  a  nation  primarily  rests.  Running  water  is  a 
most  valuable  natural  asset  of  the  people,  and  there  is  urgent  need 
for  conserving  it  for  navigation,  for  power,  for  irrigation,  and  for 
domestic  and  municipal  supply. 

"Hitherto  our  national  policy  of  inland  waterway  development  has 
been  largely  negative.  No  single  agency  has  been  responsible  under 
the  Congress  for  making  the  best  use  of  our  rivers,  or  for  exercising 
foresight  in  their  development.  In  the  absence  of  a  comprehensive 
plan,  the  only  safe  policy  was  one  of  repression  and  procrastination. 
Frequent  changes  of  plan  and  piecemeal  execution  of  projects  have 
still  further  hampered  improvement.  A  channel  is  no  deeper  than 
its  shallowest  reach,  and  to  improve  a  river  short  of  the  point  of 
effective  navigability  is  a  sheer  waste  of  all  its  cost.  In  spite  of 
large  appropriations  for  their  improvement,  our  rivers  are  less 
serviceable  for  interstate  commerce  today  than  they  were  half  a 
century  ago  and  in  spite  of  the  vast  increase  in  our  population  and 
commerce  they  are  on  the  whole  less  used. 

"The  first  condition  of  successful  development  of  our  waterways 
is  a  definite  and  progressive  policy.  The  second  is  a  concrete  gen- 
eral plan,  prepared  by  the  best  experts  available,  covering  every 
use  to  which  our  streams  can  be  put.  We  shall  not  succeed  until 
the  responsibility  of  administering  the  policy  and  executing  and 
extending  the  plan  is  definitely  laid  on  one  man  or  group  of  men 
who  can  be  held  accountable.  Every  portion  of  the  general  plan 
should  consider  and  so  far  as  practicable  secure  to  the  people  the 


LEGAL  AND  LEGISLATIVE  PROBLEMS        301 

use  of  water  for  power,  irrigation,  and  domestic  supply  as  well  as 
for  navigation.  No  project  should  be  begun  until  the  funds  neces- 
sary to  complete  it  promptly  are  provided,  and  no  plan  once  under 
way  should  be  changed  except  for  grave  reasons.  Work  once  begun 
should  be  prosecuted  steadily  and  vigorously  to  completion.  We 
must  make  sure  that  projects  are  not  undertaken  except  for  sound 
business  reasons,  and  that  the  best  modern  business  methods  are 
applied  in  executing  them.  The  decision  to  undertake  any  project 
should  rest  on  actual  need  ascertained  by  investigation  and  judg- 
ment of  experts  and  on  its  relation  to  great  river  systems  or  to  the 
general  plan,  and  never  on  mere  clamor. 

"The  improvement  of  our  inland  waterways  can  and  should  be 
made  to  pay  for  itself  so  far  as  practicable  from  the  incidental 
proceeds  from  water  power  and  other  uses.  Navigation  should  of 
course  be  free.  But  the  greatest  return  will  come  from  the  in- 
creased commerce,  growth,  and  prosperity  of  our  people.  For  this 
we  have  already  waited  too  long.  Adequate  funds  should  be  pro- 
vided, by  bond  issue,  if  necessary,  and  the  work  should  be  delayed 
no  longer.  The  development  of  our  waterways  and  the  conservation 
of  our  forests  are  the  two  most  pressing  physical  needs  of  the 
country.  They  are  interdependent,  and  they  should  be  met  vigor- 
ously, together,  and  at  once.  The  questions  of  organization,  powers, 
and  appropriations  are  now  before  the  Congress.  There  is  urgent 
need  for  prompt  and  decisive  action." 

THEODORE  ROOSEVELT. 

(From  Message  of  President  printed  in  Preliminary  Report  of 
the  Inland  Waterways  Commission,  Senate  Doc.  No.  325,  60th  Con- 
gress, 1st  Session.) 

CONCLUSIONS.  From  what  has  been  stated  in  the  previous 
pages,  it  should  be  obvious  that  the  development  and  full  use 
of  our  water  resources  is  not  a  local  or  restricted  matter,  but 
concerns  more  or  less  directly  or  indirectly  the  health  and  pros- 
perity of  nearly  every  person.  It  is  closely  tied  up  with  the 
existence  of  life  itself  in  that  it  furnishes  water  without  which 
no  person  can  keep  alive  more  than  two  or  three  days.  It  bears 
upon  the  raising  of  cattle  used  for  food  and  upon  the  produc- 
tion of  crops  needed  for  these  animals,  and  for  immediate  use 
by  man.  It  enters  into  the  disposal  of  sewage  and  waste  and 
the  consequent  preservation  of  health.  It  concerns  food  and 


302  WATER  RESOURCES 

raw  material  from  aquatic  sources,  the  preservation  of  birds 
as  crop  protectors.  It  vitally  affects  manufacturing  and  pro- 
duction of  power  used  in  lighting,  heating,  transportation,  and 
innumerable  ways.  It  enters  into  the  broad  conceptions  of  the 
largest  future  use  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  country, 
increasing  the  comfort  and  prosperity  of  the  nation,  reducing 
loss  of  life  and  property  in  floods  and  in  the  discomforts  pro- 
duced by  droughts. 

Viewed  in  this  large  way,  we  can  well  conceive  why  a  fund 
has  been  established  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  before  the  people 
of  the  country  the  larger  aspects  of  the  case.  To  the  young 
engineer,  enthusiastic,  not  only  to  enter  upon  his  profession, 
but  to  do  something  really  worth  while,  the  great  questions  of 
water  conservation  offer  a  strong  appeal.  There  is  a  breadth 
and  bigness  which  cannot  be  overlooked;  while  the  way  is  long 
and  hard  and  many  discouragements  must  be  met  and  over- 
come, yet  as  shown  by  the  pictures  already  presented,  enough 
has  been  done  to  stimulate  and  encourage  future  work.  This 
is  especially  true  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  the  structures 
already  built  and  the  results  already  obtained  are  merely 
samples  of  the  larger  and  more  comprehensive  projects  which 
should  be  outlined  and  entered  upon. 

It  is  impossible  in  a  book  of  moderate  size  to  more  than  touch 
upon  some  of  the  important  points.  A  whole  library  is  required, 
embracing  not  merely  books  on  hydraulics,  on  construction  and 
management,  but  also  upon  economics  and  legal  relations.  This 
is  because,  as  already  stated,  the  problems  are  far-reaching  and 
involve  not  only  the  application  of  natural  laws  but  also  the 
modification  of  man-made  laws  and  court  findings.  While  the 
obstacles  to  be  overcome  are  great  and  all  may  not  be  success- 
fully met  in  this  generation,  yet  there  is  the  constant  stimulus 
in  the  thought  that  they  are  not  insurmountable  and  that  the 
reward  is  sure  to  him  who  has  vision,  perseverance,  and  ability. 

There  is  no  evading  the  great  question  of  water  conservation. 
Each  year  it  is  presented  more  strongly  to  our  attention.  The 
hundred  million  and  more  people  who  live  in  the  United  States 
already  have  need  for  a  larger  and  better  regulated  water 
supply  and  for  protection  from  floods.  At  the  present  rate 


LEGAL  AND  LEGISLATIVE  PROBLEMS        303 

of  increase,  other  millions  will  soon  be  more  urgently  demand- 
ing larger  opportunities  for  life  and  comfort.  New  complica- 
tions are  arising  and  the  sooner  the  problems  are  attacked,  the 
easier  will  be  the  solution.  There  is  every  incentive,  therefore, 
for  the  young  man  of  the  present  day  to  seriously  and  per- 
sistently study  these  matters  and  to  identify  himself  with  the 
great  forward  movement  which  must  necessarily  take  place 
along  these  lines. 

END 


INDEX 


Absorption  of  water,  76,  80,  91 

Acre-feet,  105,  195 

Acre-feet  storage  cost,  151 

Activated  sludge,  244 

Adams,  Frank,  227 

Alfalfa,  189,  223 

Alice,  Lake,  Nebraska,  158 

Alkali  and  drainage,  237 

Alkaline  lakes,  176 

Alkaline  lands,  181 

Allegheny  River,  97 

Alta  Pass,  North  Carolina,  55 

Alternative  sites  for  dams,  124 

Alvord,  John  B.,  97 

Amarinds,  35 

American  Indians,  35 

Annual  operation  cost,  197 

Apache  Indians,  35 

Appalachian  forests,  61,  63 

Application  of  water,  228 

Appropriation  of  water,  294 

Aquatic  plants,  287 

Arid  regions,  187 

Arizona  underflow,  79 

Arizona  Water  Co.,  156 

Arrowrock  Dam,  Idaho,  140,  142,  159 

Artesian  wells,  77,  85,  222 

Artillery  fire,  51 

Ashlar  masonry,  137 

Atkins,  C.  B.,  280 

Atlas  of  American  Agriculture,  62 

Atmometer,  69 

Austin  Dam,  Texas,  145 

Automatic  spillway,  213,  219 

Average  flow,  112 

Baguio,  55 
Baird,  S.  F.,  282 
Baltimore,  Maryland,  54 
Barge  canal,  New  York,  266 
Bass,  F.  H.,  182 
Bates,  C.  G.,  69 
Battles  causing  rain,  50 


Beadle,  J.  B.,  233 

Bear  Lake,  Utah,  171 

Bedrock,  132 

Belle  Fourche  Project,  South  Dakota, 

134,  167 

Bigelow,  F.  H.,  70 
Biological  science,  85 
Birds,  value  of,  283 
Black  Hills,  82,  87 
Boise  Project,  Idaho,  122,  159 
Borings  at  dam  site,  127 
Brackish  waters,  288 
British  engineers,  35,  189 
British  rainfall  organization,  50 
Brooks,  Charles  E.,  9,  49 
Bruckner,  Edward,  58 
Burdick,  Chas.  B.,  97 
Burton,  Theodore  E.,  298 

Cable  for  stream  measurement,  106 

Calaveras  Dam,  California,  135 

California  underflow,  79 

California  wells,  89 

Canadian  waters,  172 

Canal  banks  and  protection,  218 

Canal  lining,  217 

Carrying  unit,  210,  212 

Carson  River,  Nevada,  162,  163,  175 

Casper,  Wyoming,  158 

Catchment  area,  202 

Cereals,  235 

Chestnut  Hill  Reservoir,  Massachu- 
setts, 72 

Chezy  formula,  109 

Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  R.  R., 
87 

Chicago  parks,  249 

Chicago  River,  250 

Chicago  sewage,  251 

China,  34 

Chittenden,  Hiram  N.,  64 

Clealum,  Lake,  Washington,  166 

Climatic  fluctuations,  188 


306 


INDEX 


Cloudbursts,  55 

Clouds,  41,  60 

Cody,  Wyoming,  159 

Cold  Springs  Reservoir,  Oregon,  122, 

168 

Collecting  unit,  210 
Colorado  River,  94,  99,  118 
Columbia  River,  168 
Columbus,  Ohio,  97 
Concrete  dams,  138 
Congress,  U.  S.,  62 
Congressional  appropriations,  265 
Conservation,  28 
Conservation  of  underground  waters, 

88 

Conservation  of  water,  262 
Constitution  of  United  States,  38,  39 
Constitutional  provisions,  264 
Construction  methods,  206 
Corbett  Tunnel,  Wyoming,  159 
Core  walls,  133 
Cost  of  irrigation,  188 
Cost  of  pumping,  221 
Cost  of  water,  196 
Cost  per  acre-foot,  151,  159 
Croton  Dam,  New  York,  138 
Current  meter,  107 
Cusecs,  104 
Cylindrical  gates,  219 

Dam  failures,  144 

Dam  sites,  123 

Dams,  130 

Darton,  N.  H.,  9,  80,  86 

Davis,  Arthur  P.,  9,  150 

Dayton,  Ohio,  96 

Debris  problem,  100 

Debris  transportation,  98 

Deer  Flat  Reservoir,  Idaho,  122,  132, 

160,  166 

Dehydration,  72 
Deliveries  to  reservoir,  174 
Delta  Reservoir,  New  York,  267 
Deming,  New  Mexico,  82,  84 
Denver,  Colorado,  75,  89 
Depth  of  run-oif,  112 
Dew,  59 

Dilution  of  sewage,  244 
Discharge  measurements,  107 
Distributing  unit,  210,  214 
Diurnal  changes,  111 


Diurnal  flow,  103 

Diversion  from  river,  192 

Diversion  unit,  210,  211 

Divisions  of  irrigation  project,  210 

Domestic  use  of  water,  181 

Drainage,  187,  237 

Drinking  water,  181 

Drops  in  canal,  220 

Drought,  95 

Dry  farmer,  196 

Drying,  72 

Duchesne  River,  Utah,  165 

Dutch  windmill,  178 

Duty  of  water,  194,  232 

Dykes,  273 

Earth  dams,  127,  130 

Earth  reservoir,  223 

East  Park  Reservoir,  California,  143 

Economics,  31 

Edgemont,  South  Dakota,  84,  86 

Egypt,  34,  118 

Electricity  for  heating,  170 

Electric  transmission,  259 

Elephant  Butte  Dam,  New  Mexico, 

160 

Ellis,  Arthur  J.,  77 
El  Paso,  Texas,  145,  219 
Engineering  relations,  34 
Enlargement  of  canal,  213 
Ensign  valves,  142 
Epidemics,  244 
Erie  Canal,  New  York,  265 
Erosion,  97 
Euphrates  River,  99 
Evaporation,  65,  121,  152 
Everglades,  285 
Excessive  rainfall,  55 
Expansion  of  agriculture,  190 

Failures  of  dams,  144 
Fairchild,  H.  L.,  40 
Fassig,  O.  L.,  54 
Federal  funds,  297 
Fifth  use  of  water,  263 
Financing  irrigation  works,  200 
First  use  of  water,  37,  180 
Fisheries,  247,  256,  275,  279 
Flood  conservation,  188 
Flood  plains,  96 


INDEX 


307 


Flood  prevention  or  protection,  96, 

272 

Flooding,  in  irrigation,  228 
Floods  and  drought,  95 
Florida,  81 

Fluctuating  river  flow,  101,  110 
Fluctuations  of  rain,  56 
Flumes,  215 
Fog,  41 

Food  production,  185 
Forests,  60,  63 

Fort  Laramie  Canal,  Wyoming,  212 
Foundations,  125,  127 
Fox  River,  Illinois,  249 
Franklin  Canal,  El  Paso,  Texas,  219 
Frear,  James  A.,  298 
Freight  charges,  234 
Frogs  and  turtles,  282 
Frost,  59 
Fulke,  W.,  49 
Furrow  irrigation,  229 

Gage  for  rain,  53 

Gage  for  stream  flow,  106 

Gallon,  105 

Garden  City,  Kansas,  78,  79 

Gates  for  dams,  141 

Gates  of  canals,  219 

Gates,  turnout,  227 

Gatun  Lake,  Panama,  129,  135 

Geography,  45 

Geological  survey,  188 

Geology,  45,  86 

George,  Lloyd,  7 

Gilbert,  G.  K.,  98,  101 

Glacier     National    Park,    Montana, 

114,  171 

Granite  Reef  Dam,  Arizona,  154 
Gravels,  impervious,  239 
Gravels,  storage  of  water  in,  175 
Graves,  H.  S.,  73 
Great  basins,  92 
Great  plains,  82,  177,  222 
Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah,  165 
Green  River,  Utah,  165 
Grover,  Nathan  C.,  94,  114 
Gypsum  in  earth,  167 

Hamilton,  Ohio,  96 
Hansen,  Paul,  245 
Harding,  S.  T.,  232 


Harts,  W.  W.,  268 
Hawaiian  Islands,  pumping,  222 
Hazen,  Allen,  182 
Heads  of  water,  227 
Health,  35 

Height  of  rain  gage,  56 
Henry,  A.  J.,  62 
Herschel,  Clemens,  109 
Hoad,  W.  C.,  245 
Holden,  James  A.,  235 
Horton,  A.  H.,  71 
Horton,  Robert  E.,  113 
Hoyt,  John  C.,  9,  94,  103,  106 
Hudson  Bay,  172 
Human  life,  value  of,  183 
Human  needs,  45 
Huntington,  Ellsworth,  58 
Huntley  Project,  Montana,  220 
Hutton,  James,  49 
Hydraulic  dams,  134 
Hydraulic  giant,  100 
Hydraulic  grade,  81,  88 
Hydraulic  mining,  105 
Hydro-economics,  30 
Hydro-electric  power,  224 
Hydrography,  41,  43 
Hydrology,  41,  43 

Illinois  River,  Illinois,  249,  276 
Imperial  Valley,  California,  118 
Inhibition  of  water,  80 
Inch,  miner's,  105,  233 
Increase  of  cost,  200 
India,  34 

Indians,  American,  35 
Inland  waterways,  297 
Insurance  against  flood,  95 
Interest  losses,  198 
Internal  expansion,  190 
International  Joint  Commission,  253 
International  waters,  171 
Interstate  activities,  296 
Interstate      Canal,       Wyoming-Ne- 
braska, 157,  216 
Irrigated  area,  192 
Irrigation,  187 
Irrigation  by  pumping,  221 
Irrigation  costs,  188,  192 
Isoatmic  map,  68 

Jackson  Lake,  Wyoming,  122 


308 


INDEX 


James,  George  Wharton,  150 

James  River  Valley,  South  Dakota, 

222 

Kachess,  Lake,  Washington,  166 

Kansas,  windmills,  178 

Keechelus,  Lake,  Washington,  64, 166 

Kiln-drying,  74 

King,  F.  H.,  79 

Kutter  formula,  109,  218 

Lahontan,  Lake,  Nevada,  162 
Lateral  canal,  215,  227 
Lee,  Charles,  176 

Legal  and  legislative  problems,  292 
Leighton,  Marshall  O.,  182,  245 
Limestone,  80 
Lining  of  canal,  217 
Lippincott,  J.  B.,  176 
Livingston,  B.  E.,  68 
Log  of  well,  85 
Loose  rock  dams,  136 
Los  Angeles,  California,  water  sup- 
ply, 184 
Lyman  Lectures,  5 

Maintenance,  225 

Mammals,  value  of,  284 

Manufacturing,  259 

Masonry  dams,  138 

Massachusetts       State       Board      of 

Health,  253 

Materials  for  dams,  125 
Maximum  flow,  110 
Maxwell,  Geo.  H.,  9 
McAdie,  Alexander,  59 
McGee,  W  J,  9,  90,  299 
Mead,  Daniel  W.,  44 
Measurement  of  evaporation,  69 
Measurement  of  rainfall,  52 
Measurement  of  water,  226 
Merriam,  John  C.,  9 
Merriman,  Mansfield,  109 
Mesopotamia,  34 
Metcalf  and  Eddy,  252 
Meteorology,  41,  48 
Mexican  Dam,  El  Paso,  Texas,  145 
Mexico,  161 
Meyer,  Adolph  F.,  44 
Miami,  Ohio,  floods,  96,  144 
Milk  River,  Montana,  115,  172 


Mill,  H.  R.,  50 

Mimbres  River,  New  Mexico,  82 

Mineral  water,  184 

Miner's  inch,  105,  233 

Minidoka   Project,   Idaho,   100,   135, 

169,  218,  261 

Minitare,  Lake,  Nebraska,  158 
Mississippi  River,  68,  265,  280 
Misuse  of  streams,  274 
Mixture  of  air,  50 
Morgan,  Arthur  E.,  97 
Moulton,  H.  G.,  268 
Mountain  storage,  121 
Mountains  and  forests,  60 
Movement  of  water,  40 
Mussels,  279 

National  Research  Council,  59 

Natural  flow,  113 

Nebraska,  windmill,  178 

Necaxa  Dam,  Mexico,  135 

Necessity  of  water  storage,  117 

Newell  curve,  92 

Newell,  F.  H.,  58,  79,  93,  149,  232,  299 

New  England  run-off,  66,  91 

Newlands  Act,  149,  192 

Newlands,  Francis  G.,  9,  149,  269 

New  York  canals,  265 

New  York  forests,  62 

Nile,  river,  99,  118 

North  Platte  River,  127,  156 

Okanogan  Project,  Washington,  135 

Okefinokee  Swamp,  286 

Oldest  inhabitants,  52 

Olmstead,  Frank  H.,  176 

Operation  and  maintenance,  225 

Operation  cost,  197 

Orchard  fruits,  235 

Ordinary  flow,  112 

Orland  Project,  California,  143 

Owens  Valley,  Nevada,  184 

Owl  Creek,  South  Dakota,  134,  167 

Palestine,  58 

Pathfinder  Dam,  Wyoming,  127,  156 

Paving  for  dams,  132,  134 

Pecos  Valley,  New  Mexico,  83,  89 

Pennsylvania  forests,  62 

Periodic  fluctuations  of  rain,  56 

Phelps,  E.  B.,  253 


INDEX 


309 


Philippine  Islands,  55 

Pinchot,  Gifford,  9,  299 

Pitot  tube,  109 

Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania,  97 

Plains  storage,  122 

Plans  for  irrigation,  205 

Plant  needs  for  water,  185 

Plattsburg,  New  York,  dam,  146 

Po  River,  Italy,  291 

Political  relations,  295 

Pollution  of  streams,  246 

Pork  barrel,  298 

Pork  from  alfalfa,  235 

Potatoes,  dehydration,  74 

Powell,  John  W.,  102,  149 

Power  plant,  261 

Precipitation,  47 

Prescott,  S.  C.,  75 

Products  by  irrigation,  233 

Products,  value,  236 

Prophet,  48 

Public  confidence,  34 

Public  plunder,  298 

Puddle  wall,  133 

Pumping,  89,  177,  192,  220 

Pure  water,  value  of,  183 

Purification  of  water,  255 

Pyramid  Lake,  Nevada,  162 

Quality  of  underground  water,  83 
Quantity,  underground,  83 
Quantity  used,  105,  182,  194 

Radiation,  50 
Rainfall,  47,  52 
Rain  gage,  53 
Range  of  fluctuations,  110 
Rankine's  rule,  114 
Raw  Hide  Creek  siphon,  216 
Reclamation  Act,  148,  269,  297 
Reclamation  investigations,  199 
Reclamation  service,  5,  148 
Reconstruction,  7,  25,  29 
Recreational  values,  248 
Research,  26,  257,  289 
Research  in  irrigation,  203 
Reservoir  losses,  152 
Retarding  dams,  143 
Rio  Grande,  94,  161 
Riparian  rights,  290,  293 
River  regulations,  269 


Robertsdale,  Alabama,  54 
Rocky  Mountains,  78,  92 
Roosevelt  Dam,  Arizona,  129,  263 
Roosevelt  Reservoir,  35,  153,  211 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  9,  149,  299 
Roswell,  New  Mexico,  78,  83,  89 
Rotation  of  flow,  231 
Run-in,  76,  91 
Run-off,  66,  91,  112 
Rupert,  Idaho,  170 

Saint  Louis,  Missouri,  68 

Saint  Mary  River,  Montana,  114,  171 

Salt  River  Project,  Arizona,  154 

Salton  Sea,  California,  70,  119 

Sandstones,  81 

Sanitary  appliances,  241 

San  Juan,  52 

Saturation  deficit  recorder,  59 

Schmidt,  W.,  68 

Second-foot,  104 

Second  use  of  water,  185 

Sedimentation,  99 

Seepage  losses,  152,  195 

Self-purification  of  streams,  255 

Sewage  treatment,  255,  289 

Sheep  grazing,  66,  226 

Sheffield  Scientific  School,  5 

Shelford,  Victor  E.,  9,  245,  256,  274, 

278 
Shoshone    Project,    Wyoming,    128, 

158,  239 

Sierra  Nevada,  163 
Silting  canals,  100,  218 
Siphons,  216 
Sky  signs,  59 
Slichter,  Chas.  S.,  79 
Snake  River,  100,  122 
Soper,  G.  A.,  250 
South  Carolina  wells,  84 
South  Dakota,  89 
Speculum  Mundi,  49 
Spillway,  automatic,  213,  219 
Spillways,  142 
Standard  forms,  205 
Station  equipment,  106 
Storage  of  water,  117 
Storage  works  of  U.  S.  R.  S.,  150 
Strata,  water-bearing,  85 
Strawberry  Valley,  Utah,  165 
Stream  flow  data,  93 


310 


INDEX 


Stream  measurements,  103 

Structures,  215 

Subirrigation,  230 

Subsoil  water,  90 

Support  of  life,  180 

Surveys,  122,  201 

Susquehanna  River,  Pennsylvania,  93 

Swamp  reclamation,  191,  285 

Swan,  John,  49 

Tahoe,  Lake,  122,  161,  163 

Tanks  for  irrigation,  223 

Teele,  R.  P.,  232 

Third  use  of  water,  211 

Tieton  River,  Washington,  215 

Timber  dams,  136 

Topographic  surveys,  120,  123,  202 

Transportation,  259 

Transportation  of  waste,  241 

Transportation  Trinity,  264 

Treaty,  U.  S.  and  Canada,  173,  280 

Truckee  River,  162,  174 

Trunk  line  canal,  210 

Tunnels,  216 

Turnout  gate,  227 

Umatilla  Project,  Oregon,  122,  168 

Underflow,  78 

Underground  storage,  175 

U.  S.  Reclamation  Service,  33 

Units  of  water  measurements,  104 

Uses  of  water,  37,  179 

Value  of  irrigation,  189 
Value  of  products,  236 
Value  of  storage  works,  151 
Value  per  second-foot,  196 
Varying  quantities,  101 
Venturi  meter,  109 
Vested  rights,  243 


Walcott,  Chas.  D.,  170,  171,  218 

Ward,  H.  B.,  254 

Warning  against  boring,  88 

Warping,  100 

Waste  transportation,  241 

WTasteways,  145,  237 

Water  cost,  196 

Water,  fifth  use,  38 

Water,  first  use,  38 

Water,  fourth  use,  38 

Water,  general  condition,  36 

Water  margins,  284 

Water  power,  260 

Water  Resource  Branch,  U.  S.  G.  S., 

107 

Water,  second  use,  38 
Water  storage,  conservation  by,  5 
Water,  third  use,  38 
Water  waste,  227 
Waterways  Commission,  270,  299 
Watermol,  40 
Weather  Bureau,  70,  188 
Wegmann,  Edward  C.,  147 
Weir,  108,  193 
Wells  for  irrigation,  222 
Whalen  Dam,  Nebraska,  157,  212 
Whipple,  Geo.  G.,  183 
White  Mountains  forests,  61,  63 
Widtsoe,  John  A.,  232 
Wild  flooding,  228 
Willcocks,  Sir.  Wm.,  118 
Windmills,  178,  223 
Winnemucca  Lake,  Nevada,  162 
Winslow,  C.-E.  A.,  251 
Winter  load  for  power  plant,  261 

Yakima  Lakes,  Washington,  166 
Yakima  River,  64 
Yakima  Valley,  Washington,  220 
Yellowstone  National  Park,  122,  158 
Yuma,  Arizona,  99,  217 


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